Notes Introduction 1. William Jupp, Wayfarings: A Record of Adventure and Liberation in the Life of the Spirit (London: Headley Bros., 1918), p. 60. 2. E.P. Thompson has claimed that during the 1870s the number of socialists may have numbered as little as 20. See Edward P. Thompson, William Morris: From Romantic to Revolutionary (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1955), p. 276. 3. The latter is mentioned in George Bernard Shaw, ‘The Fabian Society: Its Early History’, Fabian Tract No. 41 (February 1892), p. 7. 4. These Christian Socialist bodies are discussed in Peter D’A. Jones, The Christian Socialist Revival, 1877–1914. Religion, Class and Social Conscience in Late Victorian England (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968). 5. Keith Laybourn, The Rise of Socialism in Britain, c.1881–1951 (Sutton: Gloucestershire, 1997), pp. 32, 34. 6. See Lena Wallis, The Life and Letters of Caroline Martyn (Glasgow: Labour Leader, 1898). Caroline Martyn died in July 1896 at the age of just 29. She became one of the first socialist martyrs of the revival era. 7. On Carpenter, see Chushichi Tsuzuki, Edward Carpenter, 1844–1929: ProphetofHumanFellowship(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); Edward Carpenter, My Days and Dreams (London: Allen and Unwin, 1916). 8. Annie Besant, Annie Besant, An Autobiography (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1893), pp. 317–8. 9. See Chapter 2. 10. Examples of this earlier literature would include Henry Pelling, The Ori- gins of the Labour Party, 1880–1900 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965) and G.D.H. Cole, A Short History of the British Working Class Movement, 1789–1947 (London: Allen and Unwin, 1948). 11. See, for example, Eugenio Biagani and Alistair Reid, eds, Currents of Radicalism: Popular Radicalism, Organised Labour and Party Politics in Britain, 1850–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). 12. Stanley Pierson was particularly instrumental in promoting this con- cept. See Stanley Pierson, British Socialists: The Journey from Fantasy to Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Stanley Pierson, Marxism and the Origins of British Socialism. The Struggle for a New Consciousness (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1973). 139 140 Notes 13. Examples include: Stephen Yeo, ‘A New Life: The Religion of Socialism in Britain, 1883–1896’, History Workshop 4 (1977): pp. 5–56; and Eric Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels. Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movement in the 19th and 20th Century (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1959). 14. See, for example, James Hinton, Labour and Socialism: A History of the British Labour Movement 1867–1974 (Brighton: Wheatsheaf Harvester, 1983); John Callaghan, Socialism in Britain Since 1884 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990). Thus, in an otherwise exemplary survey of British socialism, Callaghan devotes just a couple of sentences to the subject of ‘ethical socialism’ on page 6 of his book. 15. Roger Griffin, Modernism and Fascism. The Sense of a Beginning under Mussolini and Hitler (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007); Modris Eksteins, The Rites of Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989); and Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air. The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1981). 16. Griffin, Modernism and Fascism, pp. 61–4. 1 Defining Modernism 1. Frederic Jameson, A Singular Modernity. Essays on the Ontology of the Present (London: Verso, 2002), p. 99. 2. Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air. The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1981), p. 16. 3. Jameson, A Singular Modernity, pp. 141–4. 4. Roger Griffin, Modernism and Fascism. The Sense of a Beginning under Mussolini and Hitler (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), pp. 45–6. 5. David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989); Jameson, A Singular Modernity. 6. Georg Simmel, ed., ‘The Metropolis and Mental Life’, in Georg Simmel, ed., On Individuality and Social Forms (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971). 7. Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1990), p. 37. 8. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, pp. 27–8. 9. Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and Ambivalence (Oxford: Polity Press, 1991), p. 7. 10. Griffin, Modernism and Fascism, p. 49. 11. Bauman, Modernity and Ambivalence, pp. 10–11. 12. Reinhart Koselleck, ‘The Eighteenth Century As the Beginning of Modernity’, in Reinhart Koselleck, ed., The Practice of Conceptual His- tory. Timing History, Spacing Concepts (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002), p. 161. Notes 141 13. Peter Osborne, ‘Modernity Is a Qualitative, Not a Chronological, Cate- gory’, New Left Review 1/ 192 (March–April 1992): pp. 65–84. 14. Koselleck, ‘The Eighteenth Century’, p. 168. 15. Doreen Massey, For Space (London: Sage, 2005), p. 68. 16. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, pp. 229–30. 17. Helga Nowotny, Time: The Modern and Postmodern Experience (Cambridge: Polity, 1994), p. 18. 18. Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity, pp. 16–21. 19. Roger Friedland and Deirdre Boden, eds, NowHere: Space, Time and Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), pp. 28–9. 20. Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarlane, ‘The Name and Nature of Mod- ernism’, in Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarlane, eds, Modernism, 1890–1930 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), pp. 26–7. 21. Griffin, Modernism and Fascism, p. 53. 22. See Chapter 4. 23. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, pp. 205–11. 24. This ‘alternative’ space is discussed in Chapter 5. 25. Griffin, Modernism and Fascism, pp. 122–4, 131. 26. Griffin, Modernism and Fascism; Jameson, A Singular Modernity; Karl-Heinz Bohrer, Suddenness: On the Moment of Aesthetic Appearance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994). 27. Jameson, Ibid., p. 192. 28. Griffin, Modernism and Fascism, p. 63. 29. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, p. 273. 30. Berman, All That Is Solid,p.15. 31. Hugo von Hofmannsthal. Cited in James McFarlane. ‘The Mind of Modernism’, in Bradbury and McFarlane, eds, Modernism, p. 71. 32. Bradbury and McFarlane, ‘The Name and Nature of Modernism’, p. 49. 33. McFarlane, ‘The Mind of Modernism’, pp. 78–9. 34. Griffin, Modernism and Fascism, p. 62. 2 The Spiritual and Epiphanic Modernism of British Socialism 1. Frederic Jameson, A Singular Modernity. Essays on the Ontology of the Present (London: Verso, 2002), p. 136. 2. Holbrook Jackson, The Eighteen Nineties. A Review of Art and Ideas at the Close of the Nineteenth Century (London: Grant Richards, 1913), pp. 30, 31. 3. Perry Anderson, ‘Marshall Berman: Modernity and Revolution’, in Perry Anderson, A Zone of Engagement (London: Verso, 1992), pp. 25–55. 4. The other one of Anderson’s three co-ordinates was the ‘codification of a highly formalised academicism’ in the arts, which provided a set of ‘high’ 142 Notes cultural values against which critical modernist art could measure itself. Ibid., pp. 34–5. 5. Ibid., p. 36. 6. Edward Carpenter, My Days and Dreams (London: Allen and Unwin, 1916), pp. 247–8. 7. Annie Besant, Modern Socialism (London: Freethought, 1890), p. 4. 8. Splendidly discussed by Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880–1918 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983). 9. Frank Kermode, The Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967). 10. Roger Griffin, Modernism and Fascism. The Sense of a Beginning under Mussolini and Hitler (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 104–14. 11. William Jupp, Wayfarings: A Record of Adventure and Liberation in the Life of the Spirit (London: Headley Bros., 1918), p. 70. 12. Ibid., p. 83. 13. Cited in Ibid., p. 86. 14. Ibid., p. 62. 15. Mentioned in Jupp, Wayfarings, pp. 86–7. 16. Ibid., pp. 62–3. 17. See Mark Bevir, ‘British Socialism and American Romanticism’, The English Historical Review, 110, 438 (September 1995): pp. 878–901. 18. Cited in Lena Wallis, The Life and Letters of Caroline Martyn (Glasgow: Labour Leader, 1898), p. 60. 19. Fenner Brockway, Towards Tomorrow (London: Hart-Davis, MacGibbon, 1977), pp. 24–5. 20. Ibid. 21. Jupp, Wayfarings, p. 97. 22. Chester Armstrong, Pilgrimage from Nenthead: An Autobiography (London: Methuen, 1938), pp. 146–7. 23. Ibid., p. 149. 24. Wallace’s illumination featured in Richard Maurice Bucke’s celebrated account of cosmic consciousness. See Richard Maurice Bucke, Cosmic Con- sciousness: A Study in the Evolution of the Human Mind (Philadelphia: Innes and Sons, 1901), pp. 332–42. 25. James William Wallace, ‘Walt Whitman and Religion’. Lecture delivered to Progressive League, Bolton, 28 March 1915. Cited in Paul Salveson, Loving Comrades. Lancashire’s Links to Walt Whitman (Bolton: WEA, 1984), p. 5. 26. John Johnston and James William Wallace, Visits to Walt Whitman in 1890–1891 (London: Allen and Unwin, 1917), p. 19. 27. Edward Carpenter, Civilisation: Its Cause and Cure and Other Essays (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1921; first edition 1889), pp. 1–62. 28. Ibid., pp. 3–4. 29. Ibid., pp. 29, 56. 30. Ibid., p. 55. Notes 143 31. Edward Carpenter, From Adam’s Peak to Elephanta (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1892), p. 243. 32. Carpenter, Civilisation, p. 56. 33. Ibid., p. 4. 34. Ibid., p. 55. 35. Ibid., p. 13. 36. Ibid., p. 55. 37. See Carpenter, My Days and Dreams, pp. 111–13. 38. Jameson, A Singular Modernity, pp. 131–7. 39. Ibid., p. 136. 40. Jackson, The Eighteen Nineties, p. 24. 41. Jupp, Wayfarings, p. 60. 42. Jackson, The Eighteen Nineties, p. 132. 43. See Bevir, ‘British Socialism’. 44. Carpenter, Civilisation, p. 57. 45. Linda Henderson, ‘Mysticism as the “Tie That Binds”: The Case of Edward Carpenter and Modernism’, Art Journal, 46, 1 (Spring 1987): pp. 29–37. 46. Cited in Bucke, Cosmic Consciousness, 249. These meditations by Carpen- ter on cosmic consciousness first appeared in the May 1894 edition of The Labour Prophet. 47. Mercea Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return: Or, Cosmos and History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954), pp. 35–6, 141–2. 48. See George Lansbury, My Life (London: Constable, 1928), pp. 6–9.