Hyperloop System Optimization Philippe G. Kirschen*, Edward Burnell† Virgin Hyperloop, Los Angeles, CA 90021 Hyperloop system design is a uniquely coupled problem because it involves the simultaneous design of a complex, high-performance vehicle and its accompanying infrastructure. In the clean-sheet design of this new mode of high- speed mass transportation there is an excellent opportunity for the application of rigorous system optimization techniques. This work presents a system optimization tool, HOPS, that has been adopted as a central component of the Virgin Hyperloop design process. We discuss the choice of objective function, the use of a convex optimization technique called geometric programming, and the level of modeling fidelity that has allowed us to capture the system’s many intertwined, and often recursive, design relationships. We also highlight the ways in which the tool has been used. Because organizational confidence in a model is as vital as its technical merit, we close with discussion of the measures taken to build stakeholder trust in HOPS. I. Introduction II. Hyperloop The hyperloop is a concept for a high-speed mass transportation system Although Elon Musk coined the name and repopularized [1–3] the con- that uses an enclosed low-pressure environment and small autonomous cept with the Hyperloop Alpha white paper [4], the notion of what vehicles (“pods”) to enable an unparalleled combination of short travel constitutes a hyperloop has evolved significantly since its publication times, low energy consumption, and ultra-high throughput. From an in 2013, with different companies pursuing different system architec- engineering perspective, hyperloop system design is a highly-coupled tures. Time will tell which architecture(s), if any, will be commercially optimization problem with many recursive design relationships. It is successful; however, all of the most promising architectures share cer- also a clean-sheet design problem – there is no operational precedent tain key features. to use as a baseline – so there is no “initial guess” from which to begin. By virtue of these features, we claim that hyperloop system de- It is ripe for the application of rigorous system optimization. sign presents a singular opportunity for the application of multidisci- Hyperloop system designers must answer questions such as: How plinary design optimization (MDO), agnostic of the choice of architec- fast should the pod travel? How quickly should the pod accelerate? ture. However, we also claim that using an MDO tool that considers the How many passengers should each pod be able to carry? How heavy full system-wide impacts of each design choice is crucial to choosing does a pod need to be to achieve these things? How big should the the best system architecture. tube be? How low should the air pressure inside the tube be? How big does each portal need to be? How big does a pod fleet need to be? The answers to these questions and many more are not only important to A. The Key Features of a Hyperloop System enable detailed design but they are also inextricably intertwined. To achieve the high-level objectives of low travel time, low wait time, To further complicate matters, the goal is to design a superlative low energy consumption and high throughput, a hyperloop system must mode of transportation; one that offers the shortest journey time, high- have the following key features: est departure frequency, lowest energy consumption, cheapest ticket price, highest passenger throughput, and highest levels of safety and 1. Smallb pods to allow highly demand-responsive direct-to- comfort. We therefore need a disciplined way of trading between these destination service. often-competing objectives and making engineering decisions based on their impact on an appropriately chosen objective function. 2. An enclosed low pressure environment to enable low energy Fortunately, advances in powerful mathematical solvers and user- consumption despite high speeds and small pods. friendly optimization modeling languages have made it possible to for- mulate, modify, and solve large and complex optimization problems 3. “Pod-side switching”, i.e. no moving parts on the wayside, to quickly and in a way that is approachable and useful in a practical en- allow ultra-high throughputsc despite small pods and direct-to- gineering context. destination service. We have leveraged such advances to create a hyperloop system op- arXiv:2104.03907v3 [cs.CE] 21 Apr 2021 timization tool that has been used extensively in the development of the There are four major elements of a hyperloop system: the pod fleet, Virgin Hyperloop system. The purpose of this paper is to describe both the linear infrastructure (“hyperstructure”), the pressure management the hyperloop system optimization problem in general, and the tool we system, and the stations (“portals”). The pod fleet carries passengers to have developed. their destinations. The hyperstructure encloses the low pressure envi- The structure of the paper is as follows. First, to provide context, ronment and supports any necessary track elements for propulsion, lev- we give a brief overview of the defining characteristics of a hyperloop itation, guidance, and emergency braking. The enclosed nature of the system. Next, we extend this to explain what makes the design of such system also allows it to be more resilient to weather and safety hazards a system not only an interesting optimization problem but also an ex- than other transportation systems. The pressure management system tremely tightly coupled one that is uniquely well suited to formal and establishes and maintains a low-pressure environment inside the tube. rigorous system optimization. We then explain how this motivated the The portals provide an interface between the hyperloop system and the choice of a particular optimization technique. The remainder of the pa- outside world; they are where passengers board and disembark pods per describes HOPSa, a hyperloop system optimization tool that allows and where pods’ resources are replenished. Figure 1 shows a rendering engineers to answer the questions above (and many more) using con- of a pod inside a tube to help visualize these key elements. vex optimization. This includes a discussion of the choice of objective function, a high-level description of the major subsystem models, ex- bHow small (i.e. how many passengers) is obviously one of the most impor- amples of how the tool has been used, and finally a description of how tant variables to optimize, but intuitively we can say that they should carry more the tool was implemented in, and adopted by, the company. people than a car and fewer people than a regional jet. cUltra-high throughput is not only important for designing a system that is *Manager of System Optimization, [email protected] equipped to handle the demands of future population growth, but it is also a key †Partner, Convex Technologies, [email protected] part of reducing the total cost per passenger by enabling much higher utilization aRegrettably, this acronym expands to Hyperloop OPtimization Software. than a conventional rail or maglev system. 1 KIRSCHEN AND BURNELL 2 even more coupled to each other than subsystems on vehicles that op- erate in atmospheric pressure. Because there is very little convective cooling in a near-vacuum environment, the thermal management sys- tem plays a significant role in system design by introducing a strong coupling between efficiency and mass; even small decreases in effi- ciency can cause a significant “mass spiral” effect under certain condi- tions. Figure 2 captures the coupling between system elements and pod subsystems. Every line represents the interdependence of two models, with variables flowing to and/or from the connected models. Figure 1. A hyperloop pod in a tube cutaway. The pod comprises a fuselage It should be noted that not every potential hyperloop system ar- and a bogie. The tube encloses the low pressure environment and supports chitecture has the same degree of coupling, and while more coupling track elements. can make design more difficult, it is often a byproduct of architecture choices that unlock other key advantages. 3. Deterministic B. A Singular Opportunity for Multidisciplinary Design Optimization Another factor that makes hyperloop design well-suited to rigorous sys- tem optimization is that, as an autonomous, track-based system oper- Aircraft design is often cited as the exemplar of an interesting and ated in a controlled environment, it has a well-defined nominal opera- challenging multidisciplinary optimization problem because of its con- tion for any given route; the environmental conditions can be well char- flicting design pressures from different technical domains (e.g aero- acterized and the energy consumption and thermal profiles are there- structural optimization of a wing), its recursive design relationships fore easy to model with relative confidence. In other words, operations (e.g. the size of a wing depends on the weight of the aircraft which are highly deterministic. While there are other sources of uncertainty depends on the weight of the wing), and its strong coupling between and some subsystems will necessarily be sized by off-nominal scenar- subsystems (e.g. for a multi-engine aircraft the size of the vertical tail ios, the pod design is not subject to extreme, rare, and/or difficult-to- might depend on the thrust of the engines) [5,6]. As a result, a vast analyze weather phenomena and can largely be optimized around well- amount of research has gone into developing tools for multidisciplinary defined nominal operations. design optimization of aircraft [7–9]. We claim that hyperloop system design presents a singular oppor- tunity for multidisciplinary design optimization because of four prop- 4. Clean-Sheet Design erties: it requires modeling from many engineering disciplines, it is The other rare optimization opportunity afforded to hyperloop design tightly coupled and highly recursive, it is a clean-sheet design problem, at this time is the lack of any legacy infrastructure or standards that and the behavior of the system is expected to be highly deterministic.