LYCIA AND ROME: AN ARCHITECTURAL ENCOUNTER A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY AYGÜN KALINBAYRAK ERCAN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY JANUARY 2018 Approval of the Graduate School of Social Sciences Prof. Dr. Tülin Gençöz Director I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Prof. Dr. Elvan Altan Head of Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Prof. Dr. Suna Güven Supervisor Examining Committee Members Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lale Özgenel (METU, AH) Prof. Dr. Suna Güven (METU, AH) Prof. Dr. Jacques des Courtils (UBM, HUMANITIES) Prof. Dr. Burcu Erciyas (METU, SA) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Charles Gates (BILKENT, HART) I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Name, Last name : Aygün KALINBAYRAK ERCAN Signature : iii ABSTRACT LYCIA AND ROME: AN ARCHITECTURAL ENCOUNTER Kalınbayrak Ercan, Aygün Ph.D., Department of Architectural History Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Suna Güven January 2018, 354 pages This thesis examines the Romanization of Lycia from an architectural point of view. The central premise of the study is to expose how being Roman and the sense of belonging to the Roman Empire were collectively manifested in Lycia through architecture with an acknowledgement of the possible impacts of local identities and architectural practices. In this respect, the study concentrates on the architectural and urban development of Lycian cities during the Roman Imperial Period, and the outcome of the encounter between the local and Roman architectural practices. In order to pursue a deeper understanding of the continuities and changes concerning the urban fabric of Lycian cities over time, and reveal the balance between the assimilation of Roman architecture and the survival of local architectural traditions, currently discernible architectural remains and other forms of material evidence regarding the urban layouts of Lycian cities dated to a period between the late Archaic and the end of the Roman Imperial Era are examined diachronically and thematically under the consideration of key political events and cultural highlights. Then, the results are interpreted within the framework of iv Romanization theory which is reformulated through the review of critical discussions concerning the Romanization debate. This inquiry has revealed that Romanization was a dynamic and manifold dialogue between Lycia and Rome that began as early as the first encounter. The Lycian cities were conspicuously reurbanized during the Imperial Period under the influence of Roman culture and architecture, whereas some architectural practices from the Classical and especially the Hellenistic Period survived embedded within the rejuvenated urban fabric. The common architectural and urban imagery and symbolism offered by the Roman Imperial architecture, and the regular performances of Roman rituals and institutional practices within the Romanized architectural and urban setting resulted in the construction of a collective Roman and imperial identity in Lycian cities. At the same time, however, the diversity inherent in the nature of Roman architecture and the survival of the local architectural and cultural practices contributed to the creation of an idiosyncratic provincial identity in Lycia under the Roman Empire. Keywords: Lycia, Asia Minor, Roman Architecture, Romanization, Architectural History v ÖZ LİKYA VE ROMA: MİMARİ BİR KARŞILAŞMA Kalınbayrak Ercan, Aygün Doktora, Mimarlık Tarihi Tez Yöneticisi: Prof. Dr. Suna Güven Ocak 2018, 354 sayfa Bu tez, Likya’nın Romanizasyon sürecini mimari bir bakış açısıyla incelemektedir. Tezin temel hedefi Romalı olmanın ve Roma İmparatorluğuna ait olma hissinin, yerel kimliklerin ve güncel mimari pratiklerin etkilerini göz önünde bulundurarak, Likya’da mimarlık aracılığıyla kitlesel biçimde nasıl dışa vurulduğunu ortaya koymaktır. Bu bakımdan çalışma, Likya kentlerinde, Roma İmparatorluk Döneminde gerçekleşen mimari ve kentsel gelişmeleri ile yerel ve Roma mimari pratiklerinin karşılaşmasından ortaya çıkan sonuçlara odaklanmaktadır. Likya kentlerinin kent dokusunda zamanla gelişen süreklilik ve değişimler üzerine derinlemesine bir anlayış elde etmek ve Roma mimarisinin özümsenmesi ve yerli mimari geleneklerin sürdürülmesi arasındaki dengeyi ortaya çıkarmak amacıyla, Geç Arkaik Dönem ile Roma İmparatorluk Dönemi sonu arasındaki döneme tarihlenen mimari ve Likya kentlerinin kentsel düzenini ilgilendiren diğer maddi kanıtlar önemli siyasi ve kültürel olaylar ışığında artzamanlı ve tematik olarak incelenmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlar, Romanizasyon ile ilgili eleştirel vi tartışmalar ışığında yeniden değerlendirilen Romanizasyon kavramı çerçevesinde incelenmiştir. Bu araştırma, Romanizasyon sürecinin, Likya ve Roma arasında, olasılıkla ilk karşılaşmadan başlayarak süregelen, dinamik ve çok yönlü bir etkileşim olduğunu ortaya çıkarmıştır. Likya kentleri, Roma İmparatorluk Dönemi sırasında, Roma kültürü ve mimarisi etkisi altında gözle görülür biçimde yeniden kentleşmiştir. Öte yandan, Klasik ve özellikle Hellenistik Dönem’e tarihlenen bazı mimari yapılar ve gelenekler, yenilenen kent dokusu içerisinde hayatta kalmıştır. Roma İmparatorluk mimarisinin sunduğu ortak mimari ve kentsel imgeler ve sembolizm ile Roma ritüellerinin ve kamusal pratiklerinin Romanize olmuş mimari ve kentsel düzende düzenli olarak uygulanması, Likya kentlerinde Romalı ve emperyal kimlik inşasına yol açmıştır. Aynı zamanda, Roma mimarisinin doğasında yer alan çeşitliliğin yanı sıra bazı yerel mimari ve kültürel geleneklerin sürdürülmesi, Likya’da Roma İmparatorluğu bünyesinde kendine özgü bir eyalet kimliğinin oluşmasına katkıda bulunmuştur. Anahtar Kelimeler: Likya, Küçük Asya, Roma Mimarlığı, Romanizasyon, Mimarlık Tarihi vii To My Husband Önder Ercan viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The closure of this thesis marks the end of my more than fifteen years of education in the Middle East Technical University (METU) which began with my acceptance to the undergraduate program of the Department of Architecture in 2002 and continued with an MA degree in Architectural History in 2011. The knowledge and work ethic I have gained from distinguished professors have shaped my academic and personal life. I am grateful and proud to be a graduate of METU. This thesis is the culmination of my doctoral journey that began over six years ago. Challenging yet highly fulfilling, this long journey has come to an end with the support and encouragement of a number of important people. First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor and mentor Prof. Dr. Suna Güven for her continuous guidance, insightful and inspirational comments and ideas, endless patience and constant presence not only throughout this thesis but also all aspects of my life. I am also very grateful to her for introducing me to Roman Architecture and always encouraging my unconventional ways of thinking. It has been an honor and privilege to be her student both during my MA and Ph.D studies. I would like to offer my special thanks to thesis committee members Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lale Özgenel and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Charles Gates for their contribution to the development of this study with their constructive critiques on various manuscripts of the thesis. I also thank them for their valuable comments during the thesis examination and their suggestions for the future stages of this study. I am also indebted to other examining committee members. I genuinely thank Prof. Dr. Jacques des Courtils for sharing his expertise on Lycia and providing expert advice and guidance. I would like to pay my regards to Prof. Dr. Burcu Erciyas for her thought-provoking questions and encouraging comments. I ix also thank the substitute jury member Assist. Prof. Dr. Pelin Yoncacı Arslan for her presence throughout the thesis defense and her inspirational suggestions. I would like to extend my thanks to Prof. Dr. Elvan Altan, Prof. Dr. Belgin Turan Özkaya, Prof. Dr. Ali Uzay Peker, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Namık Erkal, and Dr. Sevil Enginsoy Ekinci for their scholarly guidance during my education in the METU Architectural History Graduate Program. I owe sincere thanks to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ufuk Serin for her academic and moral support throughout my studies. My research depended on the resources of libraries of particular universities and research institutions. I am thankful to the librarians at the libraries of METU, Bilkent University, the British Institute of Archaeology (Ankara), the American Research Institute (Ankara), and Koç University Research Center for Anatolian Civilizations (İstanbul). I also owe much to the staff at the METU Faculty of Architecture, Institute of Social Sciences and Register’s Office for their help and assistance with all the essential process of official matters throughout my studentship. I also thank Research Assistant Gizem Güner for the technical support she provided during the thesis examination process. I greatly acknowledge and appreciate the financial support I have received from certain institutions. My field surveys in Lycia were made