Old Dominion University ODU Digital Commons Theses and Dissertations in Early Childhood Communication Disorders & Special Education Education Spring 2010 A Hierarchical Examination of the Immigrant Achievement Gap: The Additional Explanatory Power of Nationality and Educational Selectivity Over Traditional Explorations of Race and Socioeconomic Status Kathryn A. Simms Old Dominion University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/earlychildhood_etds Part of the Bilingual, Multilingual, and Multicultural Education Commons, and the Educational Sociology Commons Recommended Citation Simms, Kathryn A.. "A Hierarchical Examination of the Immigrant Achievement Gap: The Additional Explanatory Power of Nationality and Educational Selectivity Over Traditional Explorations of Race and Socioeconomic Status" (2010). Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), dissertation, Comm Disorders & Special Educ, Old Dominion University, DOI: 10.25777/2pmk-mg16 https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/earlychildhood_etds/9 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Communication Disorders & Special Education at ODU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations in Early Childhood Education by an authorized administrator of ODU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A HIERARCHICAL EXAMINATION OF THE IMMIGRANT ACHIEVEMENT GAP: THE ADDITIONAL EXPLANATORY POWER OF NATIONALITY AND EDUCATIONAL SELECTIVITY OVER TRADITIONAL EXPLORATIONS OF RACE AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS by Kathryn A. Simms B.S. December 1987, University of Alabama M.T.A. December 1988, University of Alabama Ph.D. 1996, University of Georgia A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Old Dominion University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY EDUCATION WITH A CONCENTRATION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY May 2010 Approved by: Stephen Tonelson (Director) JpfurA. Nunnery ^Member William Owings (Membef) ABSTRACT A HIERARCHICAL EXAMINATION OF THE IMMIGRANT ACHIEVEMENT GAP: THE ADDITIONAL EXPLANATORY POWER OF NATIONALITY AND EDUCATIONAL SELECTIVITY OVER TRADITIONAL EXPLORATIONS OF RACE AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS Kathryn A. Simms Old Dominion University, 2010 Director: Dr. Stephen Tonelson This study compared immigrant and nonimmigrant educational achievement (i.e., the immigrant gap) in math and reading by reexamining the explanatory power of race and socio-economic status (SES)—two variables, perhaps, most commonly considered in educational research and policy formation. Four research questions were explored through growth curve modeling, factor analysis, and regression analysis based on a sample of participants in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort of 1998 (ECLS-K) from kindergarten to eighth grade (N= 6,861). Findings indicated that immigrant students who had been in the United States since at least their preschool years had lower math and reading achievement than nonimmigrants when they began kindergarten. In both achievement areas, 1.75-generation students caught up to their nonimmigrant counterparts, but second-generation students did not. Additionally, nationality played a greater role in determining immigrant performance than did race. Furthermore, educational selectivity had explanatory power with regard to math outcomes in (a) accounting for gaps between immigrant and nonimmigrant achievement, (b) accounting for racial gaps in achievement among both 1.75- and second-generation immigrants, (c) accounting directly for achievement among 1.75-immigrants, and (d) moderating the explanatory power of SES among both 1.75- and second-generation immigrants. Finally, mother's educational selectivity was positively associated with both parental involvement and center-based early childhood education, but not with parental warmth, relative care, nonrelative care, or participation in Head Start—independent of whether children were 1.75- or second-generation immigrants. V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge my dissertation chairman, Steven Tonelson, for his dedication, optimism, and numerous contributions to this study. Additionally, I thank my other committee members—John Nunnery and William Owings- -for their helpful comments, other revisions, and delightful senses of humor. I also credit all of those who educated me to the point of being able to undertake this study—in particular (a) Early Childhood faculty members (i.e., Andrea Debruin-Parecki, Katharine Kersey, Jack Robinson, Alice Wakefield, and Marsha White), (b) my methodology professors (i.e., James Henson, Jamie Lester, Linda Bol, and Danica Hays), (c) professors at the University of Georgia who have been highly influential in developing my understanding of research (especially, Jeff Netter and Annette Poulsen), and, of course, (d) my first teachers—my family and lifelong friends—especially, Donald Simms, Philip Coulter, Peggy Coulter, and Martha Howell. Additionally, I recognize the administrative support that has been provided to me at various points throughout my education at Old Dominion University by William Graves, Sharon Judge (who also provided me with beneficial training in survey research), Nicholas Bountress, and Barbara Webb. Finally, I thank the American Educational Research Association (AERA) for funding this study, and the National Center for Educational Studies (NCES) for selecting me to participate in an all-expense-paid, 3-day workshop on the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort of 1998 (ECLS-K) database. The AERA receives funds for its "AERA Grants Program" from the National Science Foundation vi under Grant #DRL-0941014. This study reflects research I have conducted and does not necessarily reflect opinions of these granting agencies. Vll TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES xi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION 1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 4 SUMMARY OF METHOD 8 DEFINITIONS 9 CONCLUSION 12 II. LITERATURE REVIEW 12 SELECTION OF LITERATURE 13 RESEARCH QUESTION 1: LITERATURE RELATED TO THE IMMIGRIGRANT PARADOX 13 RESEARCH QUESTION 2: LITERATURE ON THE EXPLANATORY POWER OF RACE AND NATION OF ORIGIN 31 RESEARCH QUESTION 3: LITERATURE RELATED TO THE EXPLANATORY POWER OF SES AND THE RELATIVE EXPLANATORY POWER OF PARENTAL EDUCATION 52 RESEARCH QUESTION 4: LITERATURE RELATED TO EDUCATIONAL SELECTIVITY AND PARENTING 59 CONCLUSION 82 III. METHOD 83 PARTICIPANTS 83 MEASURES 88 ANALYSIS PLAN 105 CONCLUSION 110 IV. RESULTS 112 DESCRIPTIVE RESULTS FOR MATH AND READING ACHIEVEMENT BY IMMIGRANT GENERATION AND RACE ..112 RESEARCH QUESTION 1: IS THERE EVIDENCE OF THE IMMIGRANT PARADOX IN TERMS OF MATH AND READING ACHIEVEMENT FOR STUDENTS FROM KINDERGARTEN THROUGH EIGHTH GRADE? 123 RESEARCH QUESTION 2: DO IMMIGRANTS' NATIONS OF ORIGIN WITHIN RACE EXPLAIN THE VARIABILITY TYPICALLY ATTRIBUTED TO RACE ALONE REGARDING DIFFERENCES Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED) Page IN IMMIGRANTS AND NONIMMIGRANTS' MATH AND READING ACHIEVEMENT FOR STUDENTS FOLLOWED FROM KINDERGARTEN THROUGH EIGHTH GRADE? 143 RESEARCH QUESTION 3: DOES EXPANDING THE DEFINITION OF SES TO INCLUDE EDUCATIONAL SELECTIVITY PROVIDE ADDITIONAL EXPLANATORY POWER IN ANALYZING IMMIGRANT VERSUS NONIMMIGRANT READING AND MATH ACHIEVEMENT OUTCOMES AMONG STUDENTS FOLLOWED FROM KINDERGARTEN THROUGH EIGHTH GRADE? 159 RESEARCH QUESTION 4: WHICH (IF ANY) PARENTING CHARACTERISTICS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATIONAL SELECTIVITY? 208 SUMMARY 220 V. CONCLUSION 221 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 221 LIMITATIONS 224 DISCUSSION 225 IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY AND RESEARCH 230 REFERENCES 234 APPENDICES A. PARENTING MEASURES ASSESSED IN FACTOR ANALYSIS (RESEARCH QUESTION 4) 245 B. DISCUSSION OF ASSUMPTIONS 257 VITA 260 IX LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Un-weighted and Weighted Demographic Data for ECLS-K Kindergarten-Eighth Grade 86 2. Mothers' Nations of Origin for Second-Generation Participants 91 3. Un-weighted and Weighted Number of Participants for ECLS-K Kindergarten-Eighth Grade by Generation 101 4. Math and Reading Mean IRT Scores by Immigrant Generation 114 5. Mean Math IRT Scores by Race for the Weighted Sample 118 6. Mean Reading IRT Scores by Race for the Weighted Sample 121 7. Models for Growth in Math IRT Scores: Baseline ANOVA, Linear Growth, Quadratic Growth, and Cubic Growth 126 8. Models for Growth in Reading IRT Scores: Baseline ANOVA, Linear Growth, Quadratic Growth, and Cubic Growth 128 9. Results for Growth in Math and Reading Outcomes by Immigrant Generation 134 10. Percentages of Math and Reading Assessment Data Missing for Certain Language Minority Students by Relevant Data Collection Waves 138 11. Growth in Math and Reading Outcomes by Nationality and Race 146 12. Math Achievement Controlled for Immigrant Generation, Race, Components of SES, English Language Proficiency (ELP) and other Covariates 161 13. Reading Achievement Controlled for Immigrant Generation, Race, Components of SES, English Language Proficiency (ELP) and other Covariates 172 14. Growth in Reading and Math Achievement by Immigrant Generation Controlled for Race, Components of SES, English Language Proficiency (ELP) and other Covariates 183 X LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED) 15. Growth in Reading Achievement for the Full Sample Assuming Zero Values for Language Minority Students' Missing Data 195 16. Growth in Reading Achievement for the 1.75- and Second-generation Subsamples Assuming Zero Values for Language Minority Students' Missing Data 197 17. Second-generation Participant's