Demise of Dominance: Group Threat and the New Relevance of White Identity for American Politics by Ashley Elizabeth Jardina A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Political Science) in the University of Michigan 2014 Doctoral Committee: Professor Ted Brader, Co-Chair Professor Vincent L. Hutchings, Co-Chair Professor Donald R. Kinder Professor Michael W. Traugott Professor Nicholas A. Valentino © Ashley Elizabeth Jardina 2014 All rights reserved. To my mother, for the time and support she gave to get me here ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS One fateful day in the fall of 2004, as an undergraduate at the University of Michigan, I marched into Professor Vincent Hutchings’ office and announced that I wanted to be a political science professor. Having now gone through the rigors of applying to graduate school, completing coursework, and writing a dissertation, I am amused by how certain I was and how green I must have seemed. Fortunately, Vince took me seriously. It was only a semester later that I met Professor Ted Brader, when I enrolled in his senior seminar, and he too supported my wish to go to graduate school. Together, Ted and Vince have done more than I could have imagined to support my academic pursuits. While I was still an undergraduate, Ted introduced me to his brilliant and delightful wife, Valerie Brader, who helped me prepare scholarship applications, and I appreciate her friendship tremendously. Along with Robert Mickey, whose feedback and friendship have been invaluable over the years, Vince mentored me through an undergraduate honors thesis. Both Vince and Ted offered suggestions on my graduate school applications, coursework recommendations, and encouragement as I started graduate school. Over the years, they have read countless pages, spent days brainstorming with me over research ideas, and guided me through the stressful time of choosing a dissertation topic. I have lost track of the number of letters they have written on my behalf, iii presentations they have attended, and papers they have reviewed. They brought me on board research projects and co-authored papers, where I benefitted from Ted’s skilled ability to frame arguments, his wit, and careful attention to detail. Vince taught me how to craft thorough and innovative experiments, and he encouraged me to take risks in my work. Most importantly, they were both ready with a pep talk whenever I was in need, and they believed in me whenever my own confidence waivered. I have benefitted immensely from their kindness, generosity, mentorship and friendship. I am so proud to have written a dissertation with Ted Brader and Vincent Hutchings as my chairs, and my gratitude for all they have done for me is boundless. I am fortunate to have begun graduate school with Nicholas Valentino as my formal advisor. So much of the work here is a reflection of what I learned from the opportunities Nick provided me to design experiments and co-author papers. Nick was skeptical of my dissertation idea early on, and this project is better for it. He pushed me to shore up my theoretical account and to address thoroughly alternative theories. In the end, he has been one of my strongest supporters, and I am thankful for all his time, advice, and feedback that undoubtedly improved my work immensely. In many ways, this dissertation would not have been possible without Donald Kinder. My project builds off the brilliant and far-reaching groundwork in race and politics he set forth. Don pushed me to think more deeply about the historical implications of my research, to provide stronger evidence for my claims, and to expand the scope of my work. This dissertation is richer for that advice, and for all that I have learned from Don during my years as his research assistant. iv Much to my delight, Michael Traugott joined my dissertation committee late in the process. This addition was good for me, as Mike is one of the most generous people I know. He offered access to data, moral support, and a careful review of the final draft. I hope just a little of his adventurous spirit has rubbed off on me in my work and in life. One of my most important mentors has been Nancy Burns. She offered me a position as her research assistant during my second year in graduate school, and I have benefitted from her advice, brilliant research skills, excellent cooking, and endearing stories about her family on a regular basis. She is one of the kindest and bravest people I know, and so much of what I have learned about doing good social science work is from her. I am grateful for the incredible opportunities she has given me, and I am as much a student of hers as I am of the members of my formal dissertation committee. Many other faculty at the University of Michigan offered me the tools and guidance needed to complete this dissertation. In particular, Skip Lupia provided valuable feedback on the project’s framing. Rob Mickey offered excellent advice, encouragement, and support over many years, and he has gone to bat for me more than once. This project would not have been possible without the generous support of the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship, the Gerald R. Ford Fellowship, and the Rackham Graduate School. I am also thankful for funding received through the University of Michigan Department of Political Science, and for the generous help provided by the department’s administrative staff. During my time at Michigan, I have had the privilege of knowing an impressive community of scholars and friends. I am especially thankful to Allison Dale-Riddle for her tremendous support throughout the course of the project. She was an important source v of accountability and commiseration; I feel lucky to count her as a dear friend. Alexander Von Hagen-Jamar was my friend and constant writing companion through long stretches of the dissertation, and I am glad we stuck with each other through the end of the process. At various stages, this project also benefitted from the sharp feedback of Nathan Kalmoe, Adam Seth Levine, and Spencer Piston. I am especially thankful to Spencer, who reviewed many drafts and spent hours talking through the framing of the project. I am also grateful to Nicole Yadon, who graciously put the finishing touches on the project by carefully formatting the front matter and appendices. I am lucky that during my time at Michigan, I came to know a number of incredible women who have been invaluable mentors and role models. LaFleur Stephens, Andrea Benjamin, and Pam McCann offered sage advice, pep talks, and support. Papia Debroy has been my rock, travel companion, and best friend. I cherish my friendship with each of them. I have truly found a fabulous family of friends in graduate school. Erin McGovern and Cassie Grafstrom have been with me since we entered the program together, and deserve special mention for their unfailing willingness to lend a hand, which I have needed more than once. I treasure the friendship I have found in Alex Jakle, Janna Bray, Andrea Jones-Rooy, Kerri Nicoll, Chris Leyda, Molly Reynolds, Joel Ruhter, Kristyn Karl, Trevor Johnston, Alton Worthington, Alex Von Hagen-Jamar, Richard Anderson, Tim Ryan, Katie Brown, David Smith, Keith Veal, Ethan Schoolman, Emily Bosk, Claire Whitlinger, Lisa Langdon Koch, Daniel Magleby, Chinbo Chong, and Jennifer Miller- Gonzalez. These friendships have brought me great joy and have made my time in graduate school unforgettable. vi Many others have been there for me along the way. Bradley Harris provided a great deal of formatting help and generously took the time to proofread part of the project. Last but not least, I am thankful to my parents. I attribute much of the discipline and resilience needed to complete a Ph.D. program to my father. My mother has always given me the love, time, and support I need to follow my dreams, and for that I am most grateful. Without her, I would not be where I am today. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ iii LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................x LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ xii LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER 1 Reconsidering Racial Identity among White Americans ........................1 A Look Ahead ..................................................................................................................5 CHAPTER 2 A Theory of Dominant Group Identity ..................................................10 The Concept of Identity ..................................................................................................12 Theories of Intergroup Relations ....................................................................................15 The Role of Threat .........................................................................................................26 Ingroup Love and Outgroup Hate ..................................................................................29 A Theory of Dominant Group Identity ..........................................................................31 Previous Work on White Identity