Scandinavian Toll Cordons’ Effects: Adaptations, Equity and Attitudes Joel Franklin, Jonas Eliasson and Maria Börjesson Department of Transport Science, KTH Royal Institute of Technology & Centre for Transport Studies (CTS), Stockholm Karin Brundell-Freij, Fredrik Johansson, and Sida Jiang WSP Analys och Strategi & Centre for Transport Studies (CTS), Stockholm Farideh Ramjerdi, Kåre Skollerud, Jon Martin Denstadli, and Tanu Priya Uteng Transportøkonomisk institutt (TØI), Oslo CTS Working Paper 2016:14 Abstract Roadway tolls are seeing increasing use in metropolitan areas worldwide, motivated first by increasing reliance on user fees to finance maintenance and expansion of transport infrastructure, and second by a strategy of reducing congestion externalities by discouraging car use in peak periods. In Scandinavia in particular, roadway tolls have been tested and permanently implemented in more cities than in any other region around the world. Despite the large body of evidence directly after these implementations, there remain several issues related to the effects of roadway tolls that are unexplored, not only in the Scandinavian cases but also abroad. This report documents the results of a research project intended to help fill these gaps. Our main contributions to the literature are in three broad areas: 1) travel adaptations patterns and their underlying explanations; 2) effects of tolling on location patterns and on telecommuting; and 3) explanations for the varying levels of acceptability of tolling schemes across time and in different locations. Keywords: tolls, road pricing, equity, adaptation, acceptance, attitudes JEL Codes: R41, R48, D63 Centre for Transport Studies SE-100 44 Stockholm Sweden www.cts.kth.se Scandinavian Toll Cordons’ Effects: Adaptations, Equity and Attitudes Final Report for BISEK: Bilens sociala och ekonomiska betydelse 20th May 2016 Joel Franklin, Jonas Eliasson and Maria Börjesson Department of Transport Science, KTH Royal Institute of Technology & Centre for Transport Studies (CTS), Stockholm Karin Brundell‐Freij, Fredrik Johansson, and Sida Jiang WSP Analys och Strategi & Centre for Transport Studies (CTS), Stockholm Farideh Ramjerdi, Kåre Skollerud, Jon Martin Denstadli, and Tanu Priya Uteng Transportøkonomisk institutt (TØI), Oslo Table of Contents 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 4 1.1 Past Literature ................................................................................................................................. 5 1.2 Past Evidence on Equity and Acceptance Aspects of Cordon Tolls in Four Scandinavian Cities 7 1.3 Main Findings ................................................................................................................................. 9 1.4 Policy Implications ........................................................................................................................ 10 1.5 Future Research Needs ................................................................................................................... 11 1.6 Organization of the Report ........................................................................................................... 13 2 Inledning på svenska ............................................................................................................................. 14 2.1 Tidigare litteratur .......................................................................................................................... 15 2.2 Tidigare evidens om fördelningseffekter och acceptans från fyra skandinaviska städer ......... 17 2.3 Nya fynd ......................................................................................................................................... 19 2.4 Politiska följder ............................................................................................................................. 20 2.5 Framtida forskningsbehov ............................................................................................................ 21 2.6 Rapportens uppbyggnad ............................................................................................................... 23 3 Overview of Four Scandinavian Toll Rings and their Experiences (Work Package 5) ..................... 24 3.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 24 3.2 Local Context ................................................................................................................................. 25 3.3 The Congestion Charging Schemes ............................................................................................. 28 3.4 Responses to Congestion Charges ............................................................................................... 29 3.5 Attitudes toward Cordon Tolls ..................................................................................................... 33 3.6 Review of Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 36 4 Adaptation Patterns in Gothenburg (Work Package 2, Part A) ....................................................... 38 4.1 Data ................................................................................................................................................ 38 4.2 Approach ....................................................................................................................................... 39 4.3 Results ............................................................................................................................................ 41 4.4 Review of Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 46 5 Adaptation Mechanisms in Stockholm (Work Package 2, Part B) ................................................... 48 5.1 Data ................................................................................................................................................ 48 5.2 Approach ....................................................................................................................................... 49 5.3 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 50 5.4 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 56 2 5.5 Review of Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 57 6 Adaptation Patterns and Attitudes in Trondheim (Work Package 3) ............................................. 59 6.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 60 6.2 Impact of the 2010 and 2014 Trondheim scheme on travel behaviour ....................................... 61 6.3 The Trondheim study of 2014 ...................................................................................................... 69 6.4 Review of Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 77 7 Equity, Attitudes, and Acceptability in Gothenburg (Work Package 4) .......................................... 80 7.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 80 7.2 Determinants of Attitudes to Congestion Charges .................................................................... 83 7.3 Explaining the Attitude Change .................................................................................................. 85 7.4 Distributional Effects of Congestion Charges ............................................................................. 86 7.5 Review of Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 89 References ...................................................................................................................................................... 93 3 1 Introduction Roadway tolls are seeing increasing use in metropolitan areas worldwide, motivated first by increasing reliance on user fees to finance maintenance and expansion of transport infrastructure, and second by a strategy of reducing congestion externalities by discouraging car use in peak periods. In Scandinavia in particular, roadway tolls have been tested and permanently implemented in more cities than in any other region around the world. In the earliest cases, Norway’s bompeng (turnpike toll) system was implemented in Bergen (1986) as a means to raise revenue for roadway infrastructure. Similar toll systems were later introduced in Oslo (1990), Trondheim (1991), and Stavanger (2001). In more recent years, the Swedish cities of Stockholm (2006) and Gothenburg (2013) have piloted and implemented congestion pricing schemes, known as trängselskatter (congestion taxes). These Swedish implementations have had policy goals ranging from the mitigation of environmental effects of transport, to the reduction of congestion delays, to raising revenue for roadway and public transport infrastructure. Although