Introduction On Reading Aristophanes Today O democracy! Are these things to be tolerated? —acharnians 618 This volume contains new translations of the two earliest extant plays of Aristophanes, the Acharnians and Knights, together with explanatory notes and interpretive essays meant to aid readers coming to the plays for the first time. It is reasonable to wonder at the outset why this author and these two plays deserve our attention here and now. As for Aristophanes (d. circa 386–380 b.c.e.), we can begin from the contention that he is not only the greatest Athenian comic play- wright but also among the world’s greatest comic writers simply. For although only eleven of the roughly forty plays he wrote have come down to us, they are so filled with wild comic invention, zany plots, and unforgettable characters, both lovable and loathable, that they have easily earned him a place alongside Rabelais, Molière, and Shakespeare. In brief, Aristophanes is an unsurpassed master of comedy and its devices—mockery, blasphemy, parody, and the scatological among them. As a result, anyone interested in the peaks of world literature, and in enjoying them, would do well to turn at some point to Aristophanes. Still, this contention runs the risk of making of Aristophanes an impressive antique or a giant of the past and only of the past. Hence it may not quite do justice to the fact that Aristophanes’ plays can [ 1 ] still speak forcefully to contemporary audiences, as I hope the Acharnians and Knights will confirm: there remains something remarkably fresh about them. This is ultimately traceable to the fact that Aristophanes the comedian was also and above all a thinker of a very high order. In fact Aristophanes sought nothing less than what he himself calls wisdom (sophia), a wisdom that, however much it may be rooted in a specific time and place, also transcends time and place in the direction of the permanent human condition and hence the permanent human problems. Aristophanes boasts not only of his unrivaled “novel conceits” (Wasps 1044), of the madcap inventions and comic twists that enliven his plays, but also of the “subtle things” (Acharnians 445) that fill them. In the revised version of his Clouds, Aristophanes famously complains that the audience watching its first performance failed to grasp that it—the play on which he had expended the most labor—was also his “wisest” one: Aristophanes prides himself above all on his wisdom (Clouds 522–26). Or, as the Chorus in the Assembly of Women puts it, speaking for the poet, “The wise, on the one hand, should judge me by remembering the wise things [in the play], but the laughers, on the other hand, should judge me with pleasure on account of the laughter” (Assembly of Women 1155–56). Everyone can see that the plays of Aristophanes are filled with jokes of all kinds, but it is good to remind ourselves that there is also material in them intended for “the wise,” actual or potential. This much, then, in support of the possibility that Aristophanes, the supreme jokester of antiquity, deserves to be taken seriously by us—and more seriously, perhaps, than we may be inclined to take comedians of any age. But to pursue this possibility, we must see what the Acharnians and Knights in particular help make plain, that the thoughts of concern to Aristophanes, while ranging far and [ 2 ] I ntroduction wide indeed, were, for all that, remarkably political: Aristophanes deserves to be known not only as a great thinker but also as a great political thinker. It is said that Dionysius I, tyrant of Syracuse, once wrote Plato asking the philosopher for instruction concerning the democratic polity of Athens. Plato responded by sending Dionysius the works of Aristophanes.1 The tyrant’s reaction upon receiving Plato’s mailing has not, unfortunately, been recorded. But if Dionysius did read those works, he might well have come to see the good sense behind Plato’s gift. Aristophanes’ claim to political wisdom or to political judg- ments of unusual sobriety rests in part on his understanding of jus- tice. In the Acharnians, the lead character, Dicaeopolis, turns out to be none other than Aristophanes in disguise, and at one point he turns to address the audience. He asks them not to take it amiss if he will “speak about the city, while writing a comedy. / For when it comes to what’s just, comedy too knows it. / And I’ll say things ter- ribly clever, but just” (Acharnians 499–501). Similarly, the Chorus of the Knights praises Aristophanes on the grounds that the poet “dares to say the just things” (Knights 510)—even if doing so comes at some cost to the poet himself. In the Acharnians the Chorus describes Aristophanes and his political wisdom this way: “But now don’t you ever let him go, since he’ll make a comedy of the just things! / And he affirms that he’ll teach you many good things, so you’ll be happy, / Not flattering, or setting out the prospect of pay, or fooling you through and through, / Nor acting nastily nor sprin- kling with praise, but teaching the things that are best” (Acharnians 655–58). The knowledge of what is just and what is best or most 1. “Life of Aristophanes” sec. 40, in Poetae Comici Graeci, ed. Rudolph Kas- sel and Colin Austin (Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1983), 3.2: 3. i ntroduction [ 3 ] beneficial, then, characterizes the political wisdom of Aristophanes, and so it is that he can “make a comedy” of the city, and even of justice, while also benefiting Athens. The Athens of concern to Aristophanes was of course a democ- racy, a direct democracy. His plays feature scenes in or about the democratic Assembly, where all citizens were entitled to gather, to speak, and to vote (Acharnians, Assembly of Women); the smaller Council or boulē made up of five hundred citizens charged with (among other things) setting the legislative agenda for the Assembly (Knights); and the courts, the frequent haunts of the famously liti- gious Athenians (Wasps). Aristophanes is concerned with political affairs domestic and foreign, not least the ruinous and seemingly endless Peloponnesian War, which broke out in 431 b.c.e. and lasted until Athens’ surrender to Sparta in 404 (Acharnians, Peace, Lysistrate). It is said that Athens bestowed on Aristophanes a special honor in recognition of the sound political advice he conveyed to the city in his Frogs, where he urged a reconciliation between demo- cratic and oligarchic factions in the wake of the democracy’s resto- ration in 410 subsequent to a short-lived oligarchic coup (“the 400”).2 Instructive here are the remarks of G. W. F. Hegel, among the most discerning readers of Aristophanes in modern times. According to Hegel, Aristophanes was “no ordinary joker and shal- low wag”; “everything has to him a much deeper basis, and in all his jokes there lies a depth of seriousness.” Accordingly, “when Aristophanes makes merry over the Democracy, there is a deep 2. See, e.g., The Comedies of Aristophanes: Frogs, ed. Alan H. Sommerstein (Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1996), 21–22 and 216. According to the prose “hypothesis” that accompanies the Greek manuscript of the Frogs, “The play was so admired on account of its parabasis that it was even produced again, as Dicaearchus asserts.” [ 4 ] I ntroduction political earnestness at heart, and from all his works it appears what a noble, excellent, and true Athenian citizen he was.”3 What then of the two plays of concern to us? That they belong together is easy to demonstrate, for they are linked by their proxim- ity in time—the Acharnians was staged in 425 b.c.e., the Knights in 424—and by their favorable reception: they were back-to-back hits, each winning first prize in their respective festivals. More impor- tant are their kindred themes, for both are strikingly political. And it is this concern for politics, for the conduct of democratic politics in particular, that makes the plays so accessible today. The Acharnians is a comedic plea to end the Peloponnesian War. The play’s lead character is an old Athenian farmer named Dicaeopolis ( = Aristophanes), and when Athens proves uninterested in peace, he resorts to striking a private treaty with Sparta, the enemy. This is the comic conceit at the heart of the play, that a “private” peace is possible, and it sets in motion the rest of the play’s action. Now the most vocal and persuasive advocate of war in Athens at the time—and hence Aristophanes’ greatest foe—was the dema- gogue Cleon (d. 422 b.c.e.).4 We learn in the Acharnians that Aristophanes had previously tangled with Cleon as a result of the poet’s comedic takedown of him in the play produced the year before, the Babylonians (now lost).5 This recent conflict in no way prompted Aristophanes to soften his attack or, still less, to retreat. 3. G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the History of Philosophy, trans. E. S. Haldane (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 1:427–28. 4. As part of the background to the Knights and its portrait of Paphlagon, i.e., Cleon, the appendix in this volume reproduces a speech Cleon gave to the Athenian assembly, the only such speech recorded by Thucydides in his War of the Peloponnesians and Athenians. 5. Consider Acharnians 6, 377–82, 502–5, and 659. i ntroduction [ 5 ] Far from it. For in the Knights Aristophanes even more directly attacks Cleon, who was then at the peak of his power, this time going so far as to portray Cleon as a central character named Paphlagon (roughly “Blusterer”).