Today in Astronomy 111: asteroids, perturbations and orbital resonances Leftovers: proofs of Kepler’s second and third laws Elliptical orbits and center of mass More than two bodies: perturbations by planets on each other’s orbits Mean motion resonances Simulation of perturbation by the inner Asteroids planets of the orbits of asteroids initially Stability and instability in spread evenly along the Earth’s orbit, by the asteroid belt Paul Wiegert (U. W. Ontario) and colleagues. 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 1 News flash: 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics … goes for the detection of acceleration in the Universe’s expansion, by measurement of distances with supernovae of type Ia, to Saul Perlmutter (UC Berkeley) Adam Riess (STScI and JHU) Brian Schmidt (ANU) Occasionally, physics prizes are given in astronomy. 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 2 Kepler’s Laws (continued) Kepler’s first law: we just showed, above, that elliptical orbits are consistent with gravity and the laws of motion, and the relationship between the parameters of the ellipse and the conserved mechanical quantities. Kepler’s second law (equal areas): dη dr’ dA′= dr ′′( r dη ) dA r r2 dA′ r’ dA= dηη r′′ dr = d ∫0 2 r’dη dA r2 dη 1 = = rvη dt22 dt h 1 ==GMa 1 −=ε 2 constant. 22 ( ) 29 September2011 Leftovers Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 3 Kepler’s Laws (continued) Kepler’s third law (period and semimajor axis): dA h = Integrate over one orbital period: dt 2 APh dA′ = dt ∫∫002 h A= P = π ab 2 πε24− 2 44ππ222ab 41a ( ) 2 Pa23= = = . 2 h GMa(1 −ε 2 ) GM 29 September2011 Leftovers Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 4 Elliptical orbits and center of mass As in the case of circular orbits, allowing the two masses to be finite in ratio changes the equations for elliptical orbits very little, if one just introduces the center of mass and reduced mass. The results for positions, velocities and conserved quantities: mm12 µµ µ =,r12 =−= rr ,, r mm12+ m1 m 2 µµ v12=−= vv,, v mm12 1 Gmµµ( ++ m) Gm( m) Ev=−=µ 2 12− 12, 22ra 2 L=µε Gm( 12 +− m) a(1.) 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 5 Elliptical orbits and center of mass (continued) And for a few other useful relations: dA h 1 ==+−Gm( m) a1 ε 2 dt 22 12( ) 4π 2 Pa23= Gm( 12+ m) 2 21 v=+− Gm( 21 m) ra 22ππr Recall: P = = for circular orbits. v ω 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 6 A two-body-system simulator Courtesy of Terry Herter (Cornell U.): http://www.pas.rochester.edu/~dmw/ast111/Java/binary.htm Chandra X-ray Observatory/TRW/NASA 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 7 Perturbation of orbits by other planets In the two-body problem considered hitherto, each body is subjected to a purely 1 r 2 force centered at the other body. When there is any deviation from the perfect inverse square law, orbits are no longer perfect ellipses. Such departures would be produced, for instance, by additional bodies in the system, or by nonspherical symmetry of the mass density in one or other of the bodies. In our solar system these effects are small enough that orbits are usually very close to elliptical. We call the small additional effects perturbations. The main effect of perturbations is that the orbits don’t exactly close: each successive orbit is very slightly different from the last. 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 8 Perturbation of orbits by other planets (cont’d) Because of perturbation and slight departure from closed elliptical orbits, the orientations of planetary orbits slowly change. We call this effect perihelion precession. The best example is Mercury, with a perihelion precession of 5600.73 arcsec/century. 5025 arcsec/century of this is an artifact of our coordinate system (the precession of equinoxes, due to Earth’s rotational-axis precession, but the remaining 576 arcsec/century is due to perturbations: 280 arcsec/century from Venus 151 arcsec/century from Jupiter 102 arcsec/century from other planets (mostly Earth) 43 arcsec/century from general relativity (warping of space by the Sun) 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 9 The many-body problem The two-body problem is of a class mathematical physicists call completely integrable. That means that there is one conserved quantity per degree of freedom. • For point masses: t ↔ E;,, x y z ↔= px mv xyz,,. p p Unique solutions can be obtained for completely integrable systems, so orbits can be predicted exactly for the two-body system. For more bodies, even 3, there is no general analytical solution. Even the restricted three-body problem (two massive, one massless particle) is complicated, as we shall see. Among the unpredictable problems: • Cumulative effects of perturbations (resonances) • Non-deterministic solutions (“chaos”) 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 10 Orbital resonances Periodic perturbations on an object, such as the nearby passage of a planet, will add up if they are in phase with the orbital motion of the object. If there are out of phase, then the perturbations will cancel on average and there will be no net change in the orbit of the object. 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 11 Orbital resonances (continued) Even small perturbations can be important: • The solar system is about 4.6 billion years old. • This means that everything in the inner Solar system has had more than a billion orbits. A billion small perturbations, if they add constructively (mostly in phase), can have large effects on the orbit of a small planet or asteroid. The leading cause in our solar system of small perturbations in phase with orbital motion are the mean- motion resonances of three-body systems. 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 12 Mean-motion resonances Consider the three-body system consisting of the Sun, a particle (large or small), and a perturbing planet. When do perturbations from the planet on the particle add constructively? That is, how could they be in phase with the orbital motion? One way is for an integer times the orbital period of the planet is equal to an integer times the orbital period of the particle. • Define the mean motion to be the average value of angular velocity during a period: 2π GM Here, MM= , since it's our ω ≡= P a3 Solar system we're discussing. 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 13 Mean-motion resonances (continued) • If the mean motion of the particle, ω p , and that of the perturbing planet, ω q , are related by ijωω≅ , Note that we don’t need pqexact equality for there to be or equivalently jPpq≅ iP , a big effect over many orbits. where i and j are integers, then any possible orientation of the three bodies will recur every j orbits of the particle and every i orbits of the perturber – and if any of those orientations comprise a perturbation, that is manifestly in phase with the orbit. We would call this one the “i:j resonance.” 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 14 Mean-motion resonances (continued) Recall that 2π a3/2 P = GM (Kepler’s third law), so the semimajor axis ratio for a resonance is 23 2/3 aPpp i = ≈ . aPqq j The largest convenient collection of small particles in orbit around the Sun, on which to see the effect of planetary perturbations, is the asteroids, a collection of small rocky bodies lying mostly between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 15 Vital statistics of main-belt asteroids 24 -4 Total mass ~2.3×× 10 gm (3.9 10 M⊕ ) ~200,000 with diameter Number ≥ 1 km Mass range 1014− 10 24 gm Diameter range 1-1000 km Density range 0.5− 7 gm cm-3 Orbits: Major axis range 1.7− 3.7 AU Eccentricity range 0.05− 0.9 Inclination range 0−° 30 Typical separation 107 km (0.07 AU) Eight asteroids seen at close range, shown on a common scale (Dawn/JPL/NASA) 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 16 Visits to the asteroids Including NASA’s Galileo and Cassini, which came close to some asteroids on their way to the outer planets, eight satellites have encountered ten different asteroids: Mission Launch Visited (flyby unless otherwise indicated) Galileo (NASA) 1989 951 Gaspra, 243 Ida (+ Dactyl, the first asteroidal moon) NEAR (NASA) 1996 433 Eros – orbiter, lander Cassini (NASA) 1997 2685 Masursky Deep Space 1 (NASA) 1998 9969 Braille Stardust (NASA) 1999 5535 Annefrank Hayabusa (JAXA) 2003 25143 Itokawa – orbiter, lander, sample return Rosetta (ESA) 2004 2867 Steins, 21 Lutetia Dawn (NASA) 2007 4 Vesta, 1 Ceres (2015) – will orbit both 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 17 The main asteroid belt Number of asteroids of Number Distance from Sun (AU) Sun from Distance Distance from Sun (AU) Distance from Sun (AU) Snapshot of distribution of main-belt asteroids, as would be viewed from the ecliptic pole (Bidstrup et al. 2005). The Sun’s position is labelled with a blue star, and the five inner planets by red blocks. 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 18 The main asteroid belt (continued) Distance above above Distance ecliptic (AU) Distance from Sun (AU) Snapshot of distribution of main-belt asteroids above and below the ecliptic (left), and perspective sketch of volume occupied by the main belt (right) (Bidstrup et al. 2005). 4 October 2011 Astronomy 111, Fall 2011 19 Resonances resulting in instability Within the asteroid belt, particles often change orbits due to gravitation of other particles they encounter.