Jay, Cleo (2018) Performing change? : contemporary performance practices in Morocco. PhD thesis. SOAS University of London. http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/30894 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. Performing change? Contemporary performance practices in Morocco Cleo Jay Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD 2017 Centre for Cultural, Literary and Postcolonial Studies SOAS, University of London Declaration for SOAS PhD thesis I have read and understood Regulation 21 of the General and Admissions Regulations for students of the SOAS, University of London concerning plagiarism. I undertake that all the material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by any other person. I also undertake that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of another person has been duly acknowledged in the work which I present for examination. Signed: ____________________________ Date: _________________ 3 Abstract The present thesis explores dynamics between the contemporary theatre scene in Morocco and the social and political fields through a close analysis of selected plays and performances. Over the last two decades, Moroccan theatre has emerged as a powerful tool of contestation in the hands of a generation of young artists that had lost faith in the political process. Theatre-makers and playwrights are offering spaces for critical thought and free expression and leading debates on issues as varied as domestic violence, sexual freedom or suicide. In the context of the post-Years of Lead and of the more recent Arab Spring uprisings, theatre is contributing to a renewed sense of political engagement in Morocco, challenging official history and offering alternative visions of society. Inspired by international theatre directors such as Augusto Boal and Bertolt Brecht, Moroccan theatre practitioners are successfully creating or adapting plays that question political discourses and break social taboos, re-invigorating a theatre scene that had been deserted by audiences. I will organise my research around five axes: performativity in Moroccan culture, multilingualism and the redefinition of national identity, the performance of gender and women’s rights, theatre as activism, and finally the complex issues of patronage and cultural policy. I aim to investigate the relationships of co-optation and dependence that are created between artists and their sponsors, whether public or 4 private, and look at how artists negotiate these connections in order to deliver their own messages. Ultimately, I examine the power of theatre as a medium for change. 5 Acknowledgments In loving memory of Gilda Bessis Throughout my years of research, I have met many people who have been an invaluable source of support and motivation, and I am greatly indebted to all those who contributed their time, knowledge and experience to the present thesis. First and foremost, I would like to thank my grandparents Pierre and Gilda Bessis whose undying support saw me through my PhD. They are also the source of my love for North African culture, having introduced me to a young age to couscous, makrout and family dramas. Secondly, my husband Younes for his patience and his practical support, and for helping me navigate his homeland, Morocco. My amazing thesis supervisor Karima has been an invaluable support, despite me taking three maternity leaves! I am extremely grateful for her taking me on as a young graduate and for her constant advices, encouragements and feedback. I would like to express my particular gratitude to all the people I met on fieldwork and made it a very enriching experience on many levels: to Dr Khalid Amine from the university of Tangiers whose input was very valuable, Dr Johanna Buisson from EGE Rabat for her introduction to feminist discourses in Morocco, Dr Hassan El- Mniai who deepened my understanding of traditional performances. 6 To the theatre practitioners who graciously took part in this research: Jaouad Essounani and Bouselham Daif, Issam el Yousfi, Asmaa Houri and the ARTA theatre company who gave me access to their theatre drafts, to Abdellatif from Théâtre Aquarium who I conversed through emails. To Dr Laura Box Chakravarty Box who gave me unique, personal insights into the life of the late Fatima Chebchoub, whose work very much inspired me and influenced the development of this thesis. To the Moroccan booksellers who I visited regularly on fieldwork and who guided me through published theatre plays, ordering the ones I needed, and to the very helpful staff of the Institut du Monde Arabe in Paris who helped me source unavailable books, as well as suggesting others. To Latifa and Ustadha Amal who were my darija teachers and translators on fieldwork and whose input was crucial. Last but certainly not least, I thank my parents Corinne and Christian and to my brother Antoine, for their constant encouragements. 7 Table of Contents Abstract 4 Acknowledgments 6 Table of Contents 8 Setting the scene: an Introduction 11 The context of contemporary Morocco 21 Cultural developments in the 21st century 30 Approach and methodology 37 Fieldwork 44 Chapter I 53 Performativity in the Moroccan context 53 Pre-colonial performance traditions 56 The colonial period: disrupting local traditions 63 Hybridity in the post-colonial age 71 The ISADAC generation and the cosmopolitan stage 77 The ‘glocal village’: a case study of the Amawa festival 84 Conclusion 88 Chapter II 91 Multilingualism and the politics of language 91 Linguistic strategies in contemporary Moroccan theatre 98 Issues of translation in the play Il by Driss Ksikes/ Dabateatr 105 The practice of language-switching on and off the stage 118 The emergence of a theatre in Amazigh dialects 122 Amazighité as a political ideology 142 Conclusion 150 Chapter III 153 Gender matters and the assertion of women’s voices 153 A history of the feminist movement in Morocco 157 Female pioneers in the field of theatre 167 8 Lalla J’mila (2004) or the uncovering of women’s histories 173 The example of Takoon: women performing for women 180 Breaking taboos: female sexuality on stage 189 Conclusion 201 Chapter IV: 204 Theatre as activism: Politicising performance from the Lead Years to the Arab Spring 204 Remembering the Years of Lead: Breaking the silence 209 Political apathy? : the context of the Arab Spring demonstrations 224 ‘Artivism’ in the wake of the Spring 236 Theatre Forum: education through theatre 246 Conclusion 256 Chapter V 260 Cultural policies and the issue of funding 260 Private patronage in the shadow of the Makhzen 270 Manufacturing dissent: NGOs against corruption 276 The co-optation of the feminist movement 282 Foreign cultural institutes as actors of ‘progress’ 288 Conclusion 296 Conclusion 300 Appendices 304 Bibliography 313 9 10 Setting the scene: an Introduction "Le théâtre est un point d'optique. Tout ce qui existe dans le monde, dans l'histoire, dans la vie, dans l'homme, tout doit et peut s'y réfléchir, mais sous la baguette magique de l'art." Victor Hugo The context of the performance scene in Morocco is exciting and fast-moving: since the social reforms of the early 2000s and the events of the Arab Spring1 that shook the whole region, theatre-makers, directors and playwrights have increasingly engaged with civil society and the political scene, using performance as a tool to express discontent and challenge the status quo. Khalid Amine argues: Theatre has a magical capacity to implicate ‘Others’ (...), it reformulates social legitimation and plays its part in the public sphere ‘beyond state control and moral censure’ (Amine, 2013: 89). In a complex, fast-moving society, theatre can thus provide opportunities for reflection around key social and political issues. On the other hand, theatre and other creative forms can act as a “safety valve” (Wedeen, 1999: 88) for audiences in 1 The so-called ‘Arab Spring’ uprisings started in Tunisia in late 2010 with the suicide of vegetable seller Mohamed Bouazizi. A movement of protest against corruption, poverty and an oppressive political system grew across the country, then spread to neighbouring countries and the wider Arab world. Ultimately, it led to Ben Ali in Tunisia, Mubarak in Egypt and Gaddafi in Libya being ousted. repressive contexts: they provide opportunities to express discontent and they act as outlets for the public’s anger, but these transgressions are in fact state-sanctioned. They allow the regime to “monitor dissent and to identify rebellious citizens” (Joubin, 2013:10), and they can be used to portray the state as tolerating criticism. In the last 20 years and most particularly since the Arab Spring uprisings of 2011, there have been many examples of theatre productions successfully raising awareness of specific social or political issues in Morocco. Khalid Amine’s article ‘Re-enacting Revolution and the New Public Sphere in Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco’ (2013) analyses recent controversial plays, arguing that they benefited from the turbulent atmosphere of the Arab Spring to break taboos sexuality, women’s rights or corruption. George Bajalia, theatre director and researcher, describes the engagement of theatre-makers with the 20th February movement2 and their perpetuation of its aims, stating: “the performing arts community has assumed new importance as an extension and continuation of the February 20 Movement’s ethos and objectives” (Bajalia, 2014).