Supplementary Information for Sensing the presence of gods and spirits across cultures and faiths Tanya Marie Luhrmann*†, Kara Weisman†, Felicity Aulino, Joshua D. Brahinsky, John C. Dulin, Vivian A. Dzokoto, Cristine H. Legare, Michael Lifshitz, Emily Ng, Nicole Ross-Zehnder, Rachel E. Smith * Correspondence to: Tanya Marie Luhrmann. Email: [email protected] † EQual contributions. Authors are otherwise listed in alphabetical order. This PDF file includes: Materials and methods Extended acknowledgments Figures S1-S2 Tables S1 (overview of studies) Tables S2-S13 (measures) Tables S14-S17 (demographic information for Studies 1-4) Tables S18-S23 (analyses for Study 1) Tables S24-S30 (analyses for Study 2) Tables S31-S35 (analyses for Study 3) Tables S36-S62 (analyses for Study 4) Legends for Datasets S1 to S4 SI References Other supplementary materials for this manuscript include the following: Datasets S1 to S4 Analysis scripts available at https://github.com/kgweisman/sense_spirit. 1 Materials and methods Why do some people experience extraordinary spiritual events while others do not? In four studies, we investigated two factors that might facilitate the anomalous, often sensory events that people attribute to gods, spirits, or supernatural forces, which we term “spiritual presence events”: (1) cultural models or folk theories that represent the mind as “porous,” permeable to the world (porosity); and (2) an individual’s personal orientation toward their inner life that makes it easy for them to become “absorbed” in experiences (absorption). Each study included at least one measure of participants’ experiences of spiritual presence events, as well as one or both of the two factors that, we argue, facilitate such experiences: porosity (Studies 1, 2, and 4) and absorption (Studies 1, 3, and 4); see Table S1 for an overview of all studies. Some studies also included additional Questions that were not included in these measures and are not analyzed in the current paper; we have included information about these measures in this supplement in the interest of transparency and reproducibility. Study 1 In Study 1, adults with strong religious commitments and faith practices were interviewed in depth about their spiritual experiences and their understanding of the mind by experienced ethnographers. In all but one case, these ethnographers spoke the local language and had done extensive fieldwork in the region prior to the beginning of the project. The only exception was the primary ethnographer in urban Ghana (JCD), who had previously worked not in Ghana, but in Ethiopia; he communicated in English, the local language of instruction, or through a highly competent, extensively trained research assistant. VAD, a cultural psychologist with anthropological training who had spent many years in Ghana, conducted the rural Ghana interviews in Fante. We note that we preregistered the methods and general hypotheses for Study 1 (link: https://osf.io/tk6cw); however, the preregistered analyses were focused on examining differences across countries and across faiths, which is not the primary focus of this paper, so these analyses are not reported here. These interviews yielded one measure of porosity, one measure of absorption, and one measure of spiritual presence events; see “Measures,” below. Participants. Study 1 included charismatic evangelical Christians and practitioners of another faith of local salience, and was conducted in both urban and rural settings in all five countries. In each country, fieldworkers aimed to identify an urban and a rural charismatic evangelical Christian church roughly comparable to that of other countries in class, style, and theology. These were “new” charismatic, neo-Pentecostal, or “third wave” charismatic churches, with an understanding that each congregant should have an interactive relationship with an intimate God. In urban sites these churches were middle class (or middle class aspirational) and modern in style. The charismatic evangelical Christians interviewed were congregants of those churches. Fieldworkers also identified a faith that, in our judgment, represented a non-charismatic religious tradition that was particularly salient in the local context (henceforth, “faith of local salience”). In the US, we chose an urban charismatic church in San Francisco, CA, and its rural eQuivalent in a town between Fresno and Merced, CA, in the Sierra foothills. For the faith of local salience, in both urban and rural sites we worked with Methodists (on the advice of Ann Taves, a prominent historian of religion who served as an advisor to this project). Methodists are the most populous non-evangelical Protestant denomination, with deep historical roots in the country and with congregations across the US (42). We worked with urban Methodist churches in the Los Gatos, CA area, and a rural Methodist church in a town between Modesto and Merced, CA. In Ghana, the urban charismatic church was a well-known new charismatic Christian church in Cape Coast. In the rural areas around the city, we chose two Assemblies of God churches that seemed most similar to the main urban church. For the faith of local salience, in both urban and rural sites we worked with people often called “traditionalists”; we refer to these practices in the main text as “Traditional African religion.” Ghanaians tend to see traditionalists as devotees of local, pre-colonial deities. In Cape Coast, most who claim to be traditionalists serve their communities as okomfo (Fante), priests and priestesses of the local gods. Hence, okomfo, or okomfo’s assistants, comprise the majority of the traditionalist sample. The rural setting comprised villages on the outskirts of Cape Coast. 2 In Thailand, the urban charismatic church, in Chiang Mai city, was a congregation that had broken off from the influential Thai Pentecostal Hope Church. The rural charismatic churches were located in a northern region of the Chiang Mai province, including a Hope congregation and an independent Pentecostal Thai congregation. For the faith of local salience, Buddhism was the obvious choice. The local majority in both the city and the countryside were Theravada Buddhists. Buddhists were matched to their Christian counterparts in age and neighborhood and general class standing. Our samples of Buddhists did not eQuate to a particular temple community, akin to a church congregation, though a network of local temples and teachers emerged as touchstones. “Spirit cults” are subsumed within Theravada Buddhism in local practice; Questions about supernatural presence events included Questions about spirits and other “supernatural” entities along with other Buddhist religious attainments. In China, the urban church was a charismatic evangelical church in Shanghai chosen in consultation with local scholars. The rural charismatic church was located in Henan province in a village of several thousand. In Shanghai, we chose lay Buddhism as the faith of local salience, despite its initial arrival from India, because Buddhism has been widespread in China for many centuries and has been described by Chinese scholars of religion as among the most notable urban religious revival in recent decades. In rural Henan, we selected spirit mediumship as our faith of local salience, because mediumship was present in China before both Christianity and Buddhism and has seen a notable revival especially in rural regions in recent decades. In Vanuatu, our charismatic sites were the New Covenant Church in our urban site (Port Vila, the capital city) and a self-described “indigenous” church in our rural site (the island of Tongoa, in central Vanuatu), which was founded by an ex-Presbyterian evangelist during a charismatic revival in 1978. Port Vila is overwhelmingly Christian; thus for our urban site we chose as our faith of local salience the Presbyterian Church of Vanuatu because it is the oldest and largest denomination in Vanuatu, and has been independent since 1948. For our rural site, our faith of local salience was the kastom (Bislama; from “custom”) villages in south Pentecost island; these are rural populations that have largely resisted the establishment of Christian churches and schools, and have consciously maintained spiritual beliefs and practices they consider traditional associate with an ancestral way of life. A total of N=338 adults participated in Study 1; of these, 16 adults were missing Porosity Vignettes scores, 24 adults were missing Absorption scores, and 4 were missing Spiritual Events scores, leaving N=306 adults with no missing scores. Thirty additional adults were interviewed but excluded from the dataset because they were not practitioners of either charismatic evangelical Christianity or the targeted faith of local salience (n=29), or because they had spent the majority of their life in a country different from their current location (n=1). See Table S14 for demographic information by country, urban vs. rural field sites, and religious background. Fieldworkers recruited participants through word-of-mouth at churches and other community settings where they regularly attended religious services or gatherings. Interviews typically lasted for roughly 3 hours over 1-2 sittings. Participants received a small amount of money as a thank-you gift for their participation. Interviews were conducted in a common local language (English in the US; English or Fante in Ghana; Thai in Thailand; Mandarin in China; and Bislama in Vanuatu). The translations of these interviews were the results of