“Processing” Sushi / Cooked Japan: Why Sushi Became Canadian by Rumiko Tachibana B.A., Fuji Women’s University, 1995 M.A., University of Alaska Fairbanks, 1997 B.A., University of Victoria, 2005 A Thesis submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies © Rumiko Tachibana, 2008 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. ii “Processing” Sushi / Cooked Japan: Why Sushi Became Canadian by Rumiko Tachibana B.A. Fuji Women’s University, 1995 M.A., University of Alaska Fairbanks, 1997 B.A., University of Victoria, 2005 Supervisory Committee Dr. Timothy J. Craig, Co-Supervisor (Department of Business) Dr. Hülya Demirdirek, Co-Supervisor (Department of Anthropology) iii Supervisory Committee Dr. Timothy J. Craig, Co-Supervisor (Department of Business) Dr. Hülya Demirdirek, Co-Supervisor (Department of Anthropology) ABSTRACT Sushi is a widely consumed food in North America. Along with other ethnic cuisine and food items it is subject to fusion and localization. This thesis explores the transformation of sushi in Victoria, BC, on the basis of an extensive survey, participant observation, and interviews with producers and consumers. The physical and symbolic transformation of sushi is analyzed both from the vantage point of business and cultural trends. It is shown that sushi became a food item different to what is known as sushi in Japan. This makes Victoria as one of the North American markets which threatens the Japanese national identity. This study thus not only reveals the local process of transformation of sushi but also shows how a food item becomes a multi-vocal symbol. While consumed by North Americans as healthy and exotic in its transformed style, it becomes a politically significant concern of national identity in Japan. iv Table of Contents Supervisory Committee……………………………….………..…………...ii Abstract………………….…………………………………………………………iii Table of Contents ................................................................ iv List of Tables......................................................................vii List of Figures .................................................................. viii Acknowledgements.……………..…………………………………………….ix 1. Introduction .................................................................. 1 It is Not Just about the Food: Significance of Research on Sushi ..................................... 5 Sweet Relation: Business, Culture and Transformation ............................................ 12 Theoretical Framework.................................................................................. 15 Food for Eating, Food for Thought, Food for Company.......................................................................17 Globalization as a Cultural Theory ………………………………………………………………………...22 On Transformation: Essentialism and Japanese Cultural Identification ..............................................28 Structure and Organization of This Thesis ............................................................ 31 2. Studying Sushi: Eating, Working, Asking.. ................... 33 The Research Site......................................................................................... 34 Interviews ................................................................................................. 35 Producer Interviews............................................................................................................................36 Consumer Interviews..........................................................................................................................37 Self-Administered Customer Survey ................................................................... 38 Participant Observation: Eating and Working for Research........................................ 40 3. Sushi in Japan and Sushi à la North America ............. 43 History of Sushi in Japan ................................................................................ 43 Origin of Japanese Sushi.....................................................................................................................44 Emergence of New Type of Sushi.........................................................................................................46 Nigiri-zushi and Maki-zushi: Birth of Fast-food Sushi..........................................................................47 v Standardization of Japanese Sushi ......................................................................................................49 History of Japanese Food in North America .......................................................... 51 Introduction of Japanese Food to North America and Japanese Immigrants .......................................51 The Second World War and the Change of the Diet of Japanese Immigrants.......................................53 1960s: Discovery of a New Taste for Canadians ...................................................................................54 1970s: Teppanyaki and the Juggling Japanese Chef .............................................................................56 1980s and 1990s: Sushi Boom – Emergence of Hybrid Japanese Cuisine..............................................58 4. The International Stage of Transformation: Sushi Producers and Customers in Victoria ................................ 62 Producers.................................................................................................. 63 Overall View of the Victoria’s Japanese Restaurant Business ..............................................................63 Demography of Sushi Producers .........................................................................................................65 Customers ................................................................................................. 71 Description of the Market: Overall Picture of the Sushi Customers .....................................................72 Demographics of the Sushi Customer..................................................................................................73 The Reason Why Victorians Eat Sushi ................................................................................................78 Comparison of Customer Data and Producers’ Observations on Customers ..................... 84 5. Cross-cultural Transformation of Sushi: Why Sushi Changed in Canada .......................................................... 87 Definition of Sushi: Form versus Processing Style.................................................... 89 Physical Difference of Sushi between Victoria B.C. and Japan ..................................... 92 Difference in Kinds and Variety of Sushi-neta between Victoria and Japan..........................................93 Dominance of Rolled Sushi in Canada versus Nigiri-zushi in Japan .....................................................97 Difference in the Manner of Rolling Sushi.........................................................................................101 Difference between Canadian and Japanese Sushi as Observed by the Producers ............. 102 Driving the Transformation of Sushi: Business and Cultural Factors............................ 105 Sushi Customer Decision-Making Model...........................................................................................106 Unique Business Model of Sushi Restaurants ....................................................................................113 "Authenticity” of Sushi and Exoticism ..............................................................................................114 Gap between How It Looks and What It Is........................................................................................123 6. Conclusion ................................................................. 125 Summary: Process of Transformation and Deterritorialization of Sushi ........................ 125 vi Process of Transformation of Sushi ...................................................................................................125 Transformation and Deterritorialization ...........................................................................................131 What the Transformation of Sushi Illustrates....................................................... 136 Future Research Topics ................................................................................ 138 Closing Words .......................................................................................... 140 References........................................................................ 142 Appendix A ...................................................................... 151 Appendix B ...................................................................... 154 vii List of Tables Table 2.1 Methods Adopted in This Research……………………………………………34 Table 4.1 Number of Business Establishments in the Entire Japanese Food Business in Victoria and of Interviewees Categorized by Ethnicity (as of November 2006)...........68 Table 4.2 Demographic and Cultural Variety of Sushi Customers in Victoria 1…………74 Table 4.3 Demographic and Cultural Variety of Sushi Customers in Victoria 2................75 Table 4.4 Average Value of Each Element in Significance of Choosing Sushi..................79 Table 4.5 Comparison of Customer Data and Producers’ Observations ............................84 Table