Jill Johannessen Gender, Media and development The Role of the Media in the Cultural Struggle of Gender Transformation in Tanzania Doctoral thesis for the degree of doctor rerum politicarum Trondheim, March 2006 Norwegian University of Science and Technology Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management Department of Sociology and Political Science Innovation and Creativity NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology Doctoral thesis for the degree of doctor rerum politicarum Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management Department of Sociology and Political Science © Jill Johannessen ISBN 82-471-7851-6 (printed version) ISBN 82-471-7850-8 (electronic version) ISSN 1503-8181 Doctoral theses at NTNU, 2006:52 Printed by NTNU-trykk CONTENTS • List of illustrations v • Abbreviations vii • Acknowledgments xi • Preface xiii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Gender, media and development 2 1.2 Research strategy and field materials 7 1.3 Dar es Salaam: A city in transformation 9 1.4 Conclusion 15 Chapter 2 A cultural approach to gender and media 18 2.1 A short review of feminist media studies 19 2.2 A cultural approach to gender and media 24 2.3 Post-structuralism: From ideology to discourse 29 2.4 Conclusion 32 Chapter 3 Methodology and fieldwork 34 3.1 Research design and methodology 35 3.2 Field materials 42 3.3 A discourse-analytical approach 61 3.4 Conclusion 70 Chapter 4 From socialism to capitalism and civil society as a roadmap to development 72 4.1 The struggle for independence and socialism 73 4.2 Towards a new model for development 76 4.3 New opportunities for a women’s movement 83 4.4 A micro-knowledge perspective on development 91 4.5 Conclusion 96 Chapter 5 The media landscape: From local to global culture 98 5.1 Changing the rules of the press 99 5.2 From local to global culture 103 5.3 Media use, reading strategies and empowerment 110 5.4 Conclusion 117 iii Chapter 6 Representations of women in the news 119 6.1 Prevailing representations of women 120 6.2 The media as an arena for conflicts and negotiations arising in the process of modernization 126 6.3 Development, empowerment and gender transformation 130 6.4 Discussion and conclusion 141 Chapter 7 Alternative images of women: NGOs as a force in gender transformation 147 7.1 Gender violence and sexual abuse 148 7.2 Alternative representations of women in the news 150 7.3 Discussion and conclusion 162 Chapter 8 Gender representations in TV-drama: Marriage and kinship 169 8.1 Modern versus traditional marriage 172 8.2 Marriage organization - conflicts and negotiations arising in the process of modernization 181 8.3 Female strategies and social mobility 189 8.4 Kinship organization and upbringing 195 8.5 The rhetoric of the country and the city continues 200 8.6 Discussion and conclusion 205 Chapter 9 The construction of gender and cultural critique; The way ahead 215 10.1 Resume 218 10.2 Post-structuralism and the implications for a cultural critique 232 10.3 Generalization of interpretations 236 10.4 Concluding comment and suggestions 239 Appendices 245 Appendix A: Analytical schema – illustration Appendix B: Newspaper coverage; woman/gender relations, Sept. 8-21 1997 Appendix C: Media coverage; AGSC’1997 Appendix D: Media coverage; TAMWA Symposium, July 26th 1997 Appendix E: Media coverage; Sexual Offences Special Provision Bill 1998. Appendix F: Overview of Kiswahili plays/group exposure and abstracts Appendix G: Interview guide – personal interviews Appendix H: Interview guide – reception interviews (focus groups) Appendix I: List over people interviewed using the interview guide Appendix J: Media preferences according to group membership Bibliography 283 iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Maps Map 1 Tanzania, East Africa ix Map 2 Dar es Salaam, major wards 10 Figures Figure 3.1 Gender as a discursive construction and the positioning of audiences 36 Figure 3.2 Elements of a narrative grid and gender dichotomy 63 Tables Table 3.1 Selection of Swahili plays 48 Table 3.2 Group characteristics, recruitment approach and use of intermediaries 51 Table 5.1 Ranking of television use among different groups 114 Table 5.2 Five top television programs 115 Table 6.1 Women in the news, by topic 120 Table 6.2 Gender-based violence and sexual harassment 122 Table 6.3 Women and societal issues 131 Table 9.1 Dominant representations of women 219 v ABBREVIATIONS ANC African National Congress AGSC’97 The Second Annual Studies Conference BAWATA Tanzania Women’s Council CBO Community Based Organization CCM Chama Cha Mapinduzi CEN Cable Entertainment Network CTN Cable Television Network CUF Civic United Front DSM Dar es Salaam DTV Dar es Salaam Television FemAct Feminist Activists IMF International Monetary Fund ITV Independent Television FGM Female Genital Mutilation GRAFCA Grassroots Female Communicators Association MCDWAC Ministry of Community Development, Women’s Affairs and Children MOSTHE Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education MP Member of Parliament NGO Non-Governmental Organization NNGO Northern Non-Governmental Organization OAU Organization of African Unity PST Members of Tanzanian Pharmacist Union RTD Radio Tanzania SAP Structural Adjustment Programme SERO Women in Business TAJA Tanzania Journalist Association TAMWA Tanzania Media Women’s Association TANU Tanganyika African National Union TAWLA Tanzania Women Lawyers’ Association TGNP Tanzania Gender Networking Programme Tsh. Tanzanian shillings UDSM University of Dar es Salaam UMATI Family Planning Library, DSM UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UWT Union of Tanzanian Women VAT Value Added Tax vii WAD Women And Development WID Women In Development WHO World Health Organization viii Map 1. Tanzania, East Africa Source: Women in Development Southern African Awareness (WIDSAA): Beyond Inequalities. TGNP, SARDC 1997. ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation is finally coming to an end. It has been a long journey with ups and downs, but more than anything it has been a process where I have learned much along the way. It has been both an intellectual and physical journey. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the people who have been supportive in various ways and who have made it possible to complete my journey. Some have been present all along, while others have come and gone along the way. I would like to first express my gratitude to the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Sociology and Political Science, where I was a fellow scholar for four years. Without the financial and academic support from this institution this dissertation would not be possible. In particular, I like to express my appreciation for Ola Listhaug who spotted me among other well- qualified candidates and encouraged me to apply for the scholarship. Two people have made an enormous difference in my academic development. I am forever grateful to my academic supervisors Oddgeir Tveiten and An-Magritt Jensen. I thank you both for setting in motion thought processes, for instructive comments and insights, and for providing an endless supply of patience and understanding of my life situation. Oddgeir, you have been there all along and supported me both academically and personally. An-Magritt, you came into my academic life during its later phases, but nonetheless you have been an important inspiration, supporting me and backing me up until the end. I feel deep gratitude towards you both for supporting me long after my scholarship ended. I also like to thank Nancy Bazilchuk for her efforts in copyediting. In addition, two people have been irreplaceable during my fieldwork in Tanzania. Thank you, Anna Lyimo and Phillip Mboya. You both were as indispensable as my right arm, and I couldn’t have done it without you. There are so many people to thank during my time in Tanzania; I will use this opportunity to collectively show my appreciation for all of you who have participated or assisted me in my project for your willingness and making it so enjoyable. In particular, I want to thank the Tanzania Gender Networking Programme, the Tanzania Media Women’s Association and other organizations which made an extra effort. I am also grateful to various media institutions and journalists for their openness and readiness to provide me with information. At the University of Dar es Salaam, I benefited from conversations with various intellectuals, but I would especially like to thank Dorothy Mbiliny, who in spite of her tight schedule took her time to supervise me. xi Last but not at least, I am infinitely indebted to my parents for always encouraging and equipping me with the means to study and walk my own paths. It is with my warmest thoughts I thank you for supporting me both psychologically and financially. Without your backing I wouldn’t have been able to finish this dissertation. In addition, I would like to use this opportunity to thank my ex-husband for his support and patience. Finally, Sarah, my daughter, you are the sunshine in my life and kept me going. Even though you may not be aware of it, you gave me the strength to pick up my dissertation again, filled my heart with love, and made me want to succeed. Bergen, September 2005 Jill Johannessen xii PREFACE The purpose of this dissertation is to provide insights on the role of the media in a symbolic struggle over the definition and status of women, and media’s potential for socio-cultural change. It is my hope that this study brings us closer to an understanding of how gender ideas and notions are constructed, negotiated and contested against the backdrop of the political and economic changes that are underway in Tanzania. Much like several other African countries, Tanzania is opening to democratic and economic reforms as a result of external and internal pressures and the struggle to develop.