THE NORMALIZATION OF SURVEILLANCE IN SUPERHERO FILMS A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Research in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Sociology, University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon By David Sarich © Copyright David Sarich, April, 2016. All Rights Reserved. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis/dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis/dissertation in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis/dissertation work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis/dissertation or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis/dissertation. Requests for permission to copy or to make other uses of materials in this thesis/dissertation in whole or part should be addressed to: Head of the Department of Sociology University of Saskatchewan 9 Campus Drive Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5A5 Canada i ABSTRACT This study examines how surveillance and surveillance technology has evolved and become normalized in 21st century superhero films. It examines 51 live-action films released between 2000 and 2013. Superhero films have become immensely popular, with films planned for release well into the next decade. Understanding superheroes as filling the role of watchful guardians of civil society, how they are seen to be carrying out their roles takes on greater importance in an age where security concerns are clashing with privacy concerns. The theoretical backbone of the study is Michel Foucault’s panopticon and Zygmunt Bauman’s liquidity. While the former presents surveillance as an oppressive exercise of power that results in subjects self-regulating their behaviour, the latter focuses on how the flow of information an individual generates, from both ascribed physical data and consumer-driven data, seduces the individual to behave in a manner commiserate with apolitical capitalist ideals. The major contribution coming from this study is a new theoretical concept, the dissolved panopticon. The concept contains three categories: Liquid Technology, Solid Technology, and Non Technology. It was developed to synthesize the panopticon and liquidity, placing technological and non technological surveillance techniques under a one umbrella concept that allows future research to examine surveillance as an interaction between a subject and the technique of surveillance, rather than as separate parts. The study was conducted using a manifest content analysis, which allowed for a clear picture of how surveillance has evolved. This research indicates that surveillance in superhero films has increased over the course of the study period, with much of the growth occurring within the categories of Liquid Technology and Solid Technology. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to take this opportunity to thank all of those who lent me their attention and their advice throughout this process. I would like to thank my supervisor, Jennifer Poudrier, for being a constant guide, nudging me through my stubbornness and keeping me focused on the big picture when the small details began to appear insurmountable. I would also like to thank my committee member, Carolyn Brooks, for being a sounding board, and allowing me to intrude on the time she was taking a deserved period of time away from the university. I would also like to thank my friends and colleagues in the University of Saskatchewan Sociology Department. The conversations that were had kept me engaged in my own work, but also gave me a chance to step back and expand my thoughts into other sociological areas of interest. I would also like to thank my family and friends for their patience. This whole process has made a most unsocial friend. This I hope to remedy at the completion of this thesis. You’re understanding is very much appreciated. Finally, and most importantly, I would like to thank my wife, Vicky. Her love and support has meant so much to me. It can not be stated enough. Simply put, without her, this thesis would not have come into existence. Her encouragement to keep pushing, whether I wanted it or not, was just what I required to keep this engine firing. For this, and so much more, I am eternally grateful. iii Table of Contents PERMISSION OF USE i ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii TABLE OF CONTENTS iv LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF FIGURES viii 1. CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION 1 1.1: INTRODUCTION- OUT OF THE DARKNESS…COMES THE KNIGHT 1 1.2: THE HEROES WE NEED, OR THE HEROES WE DESERVE? A QUESTION ABOUT SURVEILLANCE AND SUPERHERO FILMS. 3 1.2.1: Research Questions 3 1.3: BEFORE WAS METROPOLIS AND SUPERMAN, THERE WAS KRYPTON AND KAL EL: THE BACKGROUND THAT INFORMS THE STUDY 4 1.3.1: Surveillance 4 1.3.2: Superheroes and Academia 6 1.4: WHY STUDY SUPERHERO FILMS FROM A SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE? 6 1.4.1: Superheroes and Social Issues 7 1.4.2: The Function of Surveillance in Superhero Films 7 1.4.3: The Popularity of Superhero Films 8 1.4.4: Superhero Films as a Legitimate Film Genre 8 1.5: RESEARCH GOALS 9 1.6: CHAPTER BREAKDOWN 9 1.6.1: Literature Review: Or, a History of What Came Before 9 1.6.2: Surveillance Theory: From Foucault to Bauman to the Dissolved Panopticon 10 1.6.3: Methodology: Content Analysis 11 1.6.4: Findings in Two Parts 12 1.6.5: Discussion: Themes and The Dissolved Panopticon Unpacked On Film 12 1.6.6: Conclusion 12 1.7: THE END OF THE BEGINNING 13 2. CHAPTER 2- LITERATURE REVIEW 14 2.1: INTRODUCTION 14 2.2: A BEHIND THE SCENES FEATURE ON FILM THEORY 14 2.3: SURVEILLANCE THEORY: ON THE STREETS AND ON THE SCREEN 17 2.3.1: Surveillance On Film 20 2.4: THE SUPERHERO AS MODERN MYTHOLOGY? 22 iv 2.4.1: Superheroes On Film: It’s a Bird! It’s a Plane! It’s Academia’s Take On Superheroes in the Cinema! 23 2.5: SUMMARY 25 3. CHAPTER 3- THEORETICAL JUXTAPOSITIONS 27 3.1: INTRODUCTION 27 3.2: THE DECISION ABOUT THEORY 27 3.2.1: Foucault’s Panopticon 28 3.2.2: Bauman’s Liquidity 31 3.2.3: The Dissolved Panopticon 36 3.2.4: Theory Summary 39 3.3: SUMMARY 40 4. CHAPTER 4- METHODOLOGY 41 4.1: INTRODUCTION 41 4.2: ESTABLISHING THE METHODOLOGY 41 4.3: CONTENT ANALYSIS METHOD 43 4.4: LIMITATIONS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS 44 4.5: STUDY OF FILM 46 4.6: ORIGINS OF THE DATA SET 47 4.7: DATA GATHERING AND PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS 51 4.8: DATA ORGANIZATION AND ANALYSIS 51 4.9: LIMITATIONS OF THE METHOD IN THIS STUDY 52 4.10: SUMMARY 54 5. CHAPTER 5- FINDINGS PART 1 55 5.1: INTRODUCTION 55 5.2: FILM DISTRIBUTION 55 5.3: OVERALL RESULTS 57 5.3.1: Variable Results 60 5.3.2: Liquid Technology 62 5.3.3: Solid Technology 67 5.3.4: Non Technology 72 5.3.5: Resistance 76 5.4: SUMMARY 79 6. CHAPTER 6- FINDINGS PART 2 81 6.1: INTRODUCTION 81 6.2: SUPERHEROES NORMALIZING SURVEILLANCE 81 6.2.1: From Metaphysical to Technological, Morphing Surveillance of the Dissolved Panopticon 82 6.2.2: The Early Adopters of the Dissolved Panopticon: Governments And Villains 82 6.2.3: The Looming Presence of the Military 87 6.2.4: Out of Time, Out of Place 89 6.2.4(1): Captain America: First Avenger 90 v 6.2.4(2): Superman Returns 92 6.2.4(3): X-Men Origins: Wolverine 93 6.2.5: Summary 94 6.3: THE PANOPTICON DISSOLVES ON FILM: THE DARK KNIGHT 94 6.3.1: Introduction-The Opening Credits 95 6.3.2: Foreshadowing the Dissolution of the Panopticon 96 6.3.3: The Dulling of the Panopticon’s Sharp End 96 6.3.4: Extraordinary Rendition and the Introduction of Liquid Technology 98 6.3.5: Wire Tapping and Resistance 99 6.3.6: The Introduction of Complex Biometrics, and Old Fashioned Violence 100 6.3.7: Catching The Joker, But Not Identifying Him 101 6.3.8: Subverting Liquid and Solid Technology 103 6.3.9: The Dissolved Panopticon- The Only Card Left to Play 104 6.3.10: The Dissolved Panopticon- The Surveillance We Need? 106 7. CHAPTER 7- DISCUSSION 110 7.1: INTRODUCTION 110 7.2: SURVEILLANCE TECHNIQUES HAVE A NEW NAME: THE DISSOLVED PANOPTICON 110 7.3: ON REWIND: THE ROAD TO THE FINAL SHOWDOWN 114 7.4: CONCLUSIONS TO CONSIDER 118 7.5: LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 120 APPENDIX 122 WORKS CITED 123 vi List of Tables 4.1 CRITERIA FOR A FILM’S INCLUSION IN THE STUDY 48 4.2 VARIABLES AND SUB-VARIABLES OF THE DISSOLVED PANOPTICON 52 5.1 NUMBER OF FILMS RELEASED 57 5.2 THE VARIABLES AND SUB-VARIABLES OF THE DISSOLVED PANOPTICON 60 vii List of Figures 5.1 TOTAL SURVEILLANCE INSTANCES BY YEAR 58 5.2 MEAN INSTANCES PER YEAR 59 5.3 THE DISSOLVED PANOPTICON FROM 2000 TO 2013 61 5.4 LIQUID TECHNOLOGY 65 5.5 SOLID TECHNOLOGY 70 5.6 NON TECHNOLOGY 75 viii Chapter 1: Opening credits, opening eyes, an introduction to superheroes, surveillance and the dissolved panopticon.