English Studies ISSN: 0013-838X (Print) 1744-4217 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/nest20 Critical contributions to English syntax E. Kruisinga To cite this article: E. Kruisinga (1921) Critical contributions to English syntax, English Studies, 3:1-6, 46-172, DOI: 10.1080/00138382108596415 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00138382108596415 Published online: 13 Aug 2008. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 2 View related articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=nest20 Download by: [University of California Santa Barbara] Date: 19 June 2016, At: 07:08 46 Critical Contributions to English Syntax. VIII. The Aspects of the Infinitive and Participle. The term aspect is not so common in English grammar but that it may be useful to explain it. It is the translation of a term used in Slavonic grammar to denote the character of a verbal form in so far as it expresses whether the action is looked upon in its entirety, whether with repetition or not, or as momentaneoiis. The Germanic languages usually have no forms to express different aspects. But this does not prevent speakers of these languages from being conscious of such differences. And occasionally there are forms that serve, partly or exclusively, to express differences of aspect. In imitation of Slavonic grammar we chiefly distinguish an imperfective and perfective aspect. The imperfective verbs or verbal forms may be used to express repetition: the frequentative aspect. In the case of perfective verbs attention may be concentrated on the beginning of the action: the inchoative aspect, or on its final stage: the terminative or effective aspect. The difference between imperfective and perfective is soonest understood when the two aspects are contrasted. An imperfective aspect is generally expressed by to sit, a perfective by to sit down: he sat in a corner of the room; he sat down in a corner of the room. The imperfective aspect necessarily implies duration; hence it is often called the durative aspect. The perfective aspect considers the action with regard to its completion'), hence it is also called the momentaneous aspect. Perfectivity is often expressed in English by adding an adverb: to sit down, to sit up (in bed), to sink down, to burn down, to lie down, to stand up, to drive away. These groups are semi-compounds. Composition is a frequent means of making a verb perfective in Dutch; compare the simple verb and its compound in the following cases: uitlezen, opeten, inslikken, uitspuwen, verhoren, inschrijven, etc. A translation of the Dutch words will show that English sometimes uses different words, in other cases uses one verb for both aspects. Thus opeten would often be rendered by to finish, eten by to eat; inschrijven by to enter, schrijven by to write; uitlezen by to finish, lezen by to read. On the other hand both slikken and inslikken are to swallow: It hurts me to swallow (slikken), and Baby will swallow the ball if you don't take it away (inslikken). Other examples of pairs, one imperfective, the other perfective, are the Downloaded by [University of California Santa Barbara] at 07:08 19 June 2016 following: Imperfective Perfective to live to settle to strike to hit to say to tell to hold to seize It may also help the student to become familiar with the differences of aspect if some examples are added of the same verb expressing the two aspects in different contexts. 1) Not as completed. The perfective aspect should not be mixed up with the perfect tense. 47 1. (Imperf.)• We call a man blind when he cannot see. (Pert.)- I see w'iat y°u mean. 2. (Imperf.). We call a man deaf when he cannot hear. ( P e r f.). I did not hear what you said. 3. I have thought (i m p e r f.) of your proposal, but I don't think (p e r f.) it a practicable plan. 4. (I m p e r f.). He knows English very well. (Pert.). I wonder how he should have known us for Americans. The frequentative (or iterative) aspect is quite clear in After dinner sit a while, after supper walk a mile. Also in we dine at one on Sunday. Sometimes a verb is used to express the inchoative aspect; such are to catch sight of, to take possession of. Very often, however, it is the context only that shows us that the inchoative aspect is meant, as in the following sentence with to know. When I first knew him, during my engagement to my husband, he had just practically — though not formally — given up his orders. Mrs. Humphrey Wood, Harper's Magaz., May 1918. We sometimes find verbs with no other function than that of indicating the aspect of the following infinitive: such verbs may be called auxiliaries of aspect. This is very clear in the case of will when used to express repetition, but there are other verbs that are occasionally used as auxiliaries of aspect. Thus to come often expresses the inchoative aspect, also to fall. The reproach of being a nation of mere imitators has been so frequently directed against the Japanese that it has come to be regarded as a truth specially applicable in their case. One night during this last illness that had brought him down he fell thinking of Zimbabive and the lost cities of Africa. Wells, Joan and Peter, ch. 9, § 3. It is naturally impossible in some cases to decide whether we have a verb of full meaning or an auxiliary. Thus to keep might be called an auxiliary of iteration when construed with a gerund: He kept changing his plans. And to continue, to begin may often be called auxiliaries too, respect- ively of the imperfective (durative) and the inchoative aspect. Up to now we have only discussed the aspects as far as they can be deduced from the meaning of the verbs. Such differences, however, concern the lexicographer rather than the grammarian. But it is of grammatical importance that English has special forms to express distinctions of aspect. The chief of these forms is the progressive. Another case is that of the verbs in -le and -re expressing the frequentative aspect, as in crackle, prattle, Downloaded by [University of California Santa Barbara] at 07:08 19 June 2016 sparkle, clamber, glitter, slumber. But these verbs are not formed with a living suffix, so that we ought rather to say that the aspect is expressed by a special verb (to crack and to crackle, etc.). We have a living suffix denoting the inchoative aspect in to redden, to sicken. But this suffix is also used in other functions, so that the inchoative aspect is clear from the context only, or proceeds from the meaning of the verb, not from its form. We might also look upon reduplication as a means of expressing the frequentative aspect, as in to fiddle-faddle, to pitter-patter. All these formations, however, with the exception of the progressive, are too occasional to be called formations expressing aspect. It is the purpose of this note to consider the aspects expressed by the infinitive and participle. The best way will be to compare the cases when 48 both verbal forms are possible and to examine the difference, if any; and further to consider the cases where one form only is possible and to find out the reason for this. It is well-known that in some constructions both the infinitive with to and the participle are possible. Both the (active) infinitive and the present participle are used with an accusative *) after to see, hear, feel; to have, find, know, set, and a few others. The following examples are instructive. After lunch they walked to the Parks to watch Alan playing for the Varsity. Sinister Street, p. 704. Michael watched very carefully Alan's meeting with Stella, watched Alan's face fall when he saw her beside Maurice and marked how nervously he fidgeted with his gloves. id., on the same page. We heard the dog barking loudly, and ran to the place as quick as we could The next moment we again heard the dog bark, and when we came up to him, we found, etc. Sweet, Spoken English, p. 55. He had seen her twice; he had rather liked a short speech of five sentences she made at a Flower Show, and he had heard her being extremely rude to a curate. Wells, Joan and Peter, ch. 5, § I.. It was so funny that it set me thinking afresh. H. James, Sacred Fount, ch. 2, p. 21. Martial set himself to amuse Rome. Times Lit. 18/3, 20. "No," said Bags. "I don't want to give you three with a racquet-handle, as we made it up last night. And I don't want you turning everything upside down in my cubicle." Benson, Blaize, ch. p. 46. When we consider the durative function of the participle in the progressive, it is easy to see that it has the same function in the accusative with participle construction. The infinitive, on the other hand, is perfective; or, as the Oxford Dictionary s. v. see expresses it, the infinitive is used in this construction to imply that the subject can 'give testimony as to the fact or the manner of the action*. In accordance with the progressive aspect expressed by the participle, this construction does not only express duration (a) but also frequent repetition (6). a. We saw a tall gentleman standing looking at us intently and silently.