Negotiating Borders of Exception Humanitarian Spill-overs and Refugee Hosting Communities in Kasulu District, North-Western Tanzania MSc Thesis: Milou de Bruijne Supervisor: Dr. Bram. J. Jansen i ii Negotiating Borders of Exception Humanitarian Spill-overs and Refugee Hosting Communities in Kasulu District, North-Western Tanzania Milou de Bruijne 901126142020 Master International Development Studies Sociology of Development and Change Disaster Studies SDC-80736 Supervisor: Dr. Bram J. Jansen Second reader: Dr. Ir. G. van der Haar Cover picture: Sofia market in Kasulu Town. Photo’s in this thesis are selected from the author’s own collection (2016, 2017). iii Abstract This thesis engages with debates on humanitarian governance and refugee camps as hybrid spaces. It explores whether the notion of humanitarian governance also manifests in the area beyond the camp. Whilst humanitarian mandates and financial resources may hamper humanitarian actors from engaging with non-camp populations, this thesis explores to what extent and in what ways prolonged humanitarian presence and aid to refugees may shape everyday life of populations outside the camp, colloquially referred to as host communities. Home to protracted Nyarugusu refugee camp, Kasulu district in Tanzania was chosen as a case. The outcomes are based on an ethnographic study in the camp’s surrounding communities Makere ward and Nyarugusu village, and Kasulu district town serving as a base for humanitarian organisations. Based on a spatial analysis, this thesis concludes that prolonged humanitarian aid gives rise to a ‘humanitarian spill-over’. The spill-over implies that humanitarian actors govern social, cultural, economic and political life of a population beyond humanitarian concern. As such, humanitarian actors conduct the conduct of host communities, which may give rise to acts of self-regulation among this population. In Kasulu district, the spill-over was hybrid in nature and subject to a constant negotiation and renegotiation among humanitarian organisations, authorities, and host communities. Consequently, the host communities experienced a swing between humanitarian potential and inclusion, and humanitarian abandonment and exclusion, further enforcing a negotiation of the spill-over. Theoretically, the findings illustrate that (hybrid) humanitarian governance materialises beyond the camp. The findings imply a less refugee-centred analysis of camps as hybrid spaces and an increased understanding of a Foucauldian notion of self-regulation in the analysis of humanitarian governance. Humanitarian Governance – Governmentality – Hybrid Spaces – Host Communities – Protracted Refugee Camps – Humanitarian Aid iv Acknowledgements This thesis is the result of a fascinating, insightful, and rewarding journey. Conducting an ethnographic study on people’s experience with humanitarian aid was a rewarding journey that will stick with me both personally and professionally. It symbolises a logical final path to take in order to complete my MSc degree in Disaster Studies. The enduring encouragements and contributions of a great number of people enabled me to complete this thesis. My deepest gratitude goes out to the people that were willing to share their life stories, everyday joys, and concerns with me. To the residents and local leaders of Kasulu town, Makere ward and Nyarugusu village in particular for their willingness to speak with me and their welcoming attitudes; to the residents-refugees of Nyarugusu refugee camp for their open-hearted stories on life in Tanzania; to Tanzanian government officials and aid workers for providing me insight in their daily work and choices. Reflecting on it repeatedly, I became even more thankful for all tremendously insightful accounts people have been willing to share with me. This research would never have been possible without the significant assistance of Nehemia, who served as my translator, key informant, and friend. I appreciated his insightful comments, deep global and local knowledge regarding the situations we encountered and his social skills that took us places. Though small, I hope this thesis contributes to better insight into the functioning of humanitarian aid on the ground and potential (unintended) inclusions and exclusions that result from it. Studying Disaster Studies in Wageningen provided the essential academic training to conduct the research and write this thesis. I enjoyed the ever-interesting lectures, critical insights, and dedication of all staff. A special thanks to my supervisor Dr. Bram J. Jansen, for his encouraging support, enthusiasm, flexibility, and constructive feedback. I enjoyed our conversations and his critical questions that sometimes puzzled, but always provided new insights and definitely contributed to the deeper layers of this thesis. Moreover, I would like to thank Dr. Zacharia Masanyiwa from the Institute of Rural Development Studies (IRDP) in Tanzania for his enthusiasm on the research, for inviting me to Tanzania and, together with Ms. Restituta, being a great facilitator allowing me to conduct the fieldwork. A special thanks to Maaike van den Berg who went through the thesis-writing process at the same time and who definitely made the many library hours more fun and enjoyable. Thanks to Milan Bloem for correcting the final version of this thesis. I wish to thank my parents, family, and friends for their ever-lasting support, listening ears, and cheering words during my time in Tanzania and during the long writing process. After many hours of work, special thanks to my husband Roelof for his enduring support. I appreciate his critical insights during our endless conversations, his patience and gentle pushes to take time off now and then. I so much enjoyed staying in Tanzania together and look forward to our new adventure ahead! Asante Sana | Thank you v Table of contents Abstract iv Acknowledgements v Table of contents vi Figures viii List of Abbreviations ix Glossary ix 1. Introduction 4 2. Theoretical Framework 12 Introduction 12 Governmentality 12 Humanitarian governance 14 The genealogy of compassion beyond borders 14 The humanitarian system 15 Biopower and humanitarian government – A mutually constitutive relationship 16 Categorisation and technocratic governance 18 Techniques of humanitarian governance and it's (un)intended consequences 20 Towards actor-oriented approaches 21 The tale of active agents 21 A spatial approach to aid 22 Conclusion 24 3. Research Methodology 28 Introduction 28 Research approach 28 Introducing the field 32 Reflections and limitations 37 Conclusion 41 4. Moving Borders of Exception 44 Introduction 44 Demarcating borders of inclusions and exclusions 45 Refugee influxes and policies in Tanzania 45 Kasulu district and humanitarian legacies 50 The 2015 camp border - “We have become refugees in our own land!” 52 Humanitarian programming and spatial effects beyond the camp 60 WASH 60 Food and non-food items 63 Environment 66 vi Health 70 Logistics and transport 74 Conclusion 77 5. Auxiliary Spaces of Aid as Entitlement Areas 80 Introduction 80 Humanitarian presence as opportunity 80 Spaces of aid as learning opportunity 81 The aid economy and its trickle-down effects 84 A note on the aid economy 87 Humanitarian presence and its power to divide 89 Spaces of aid and its power to divide 90 The car as symbol of hierarchy 92 Perceived strategies to benefit 96 Competition over jobs 96 Politics and the built environment of aid 100 Conclusion 103 6. Strategising the Humanitarian Spill-over 108 Introduction 108 Host communities as strategic counterforce 108 Navigating the spill-over: strategic acts of accommodation and resistance 109 Local leaders as potential broker for change 112 Raising accountability demands during meetings 116 Humanitarian responses 119 Donor-driven and need-based approaches 119 The strategic-compliance approach 122 A strategic partnership to avoid parallel governance: indirect humanitarian governance 127 Empowering and controlling dynamics 129 Hybrid zones of inclusions and exclusions 132 Expansion of humanitarian governance and a note on hybrid spaces of aid 137 Conclusion 138 7. Conclusion 142 Theoretical implications and avenues for future research 144 8. References 148 9. Appendices 158 A. Interview code clarification list 158 B. Kasulu district map 162 vii Figures Figure 1 - The Social Production of Space 22 Figure 2 – Refugee camps in Tanzania in 2000 (FAO, 2000) 46 Figure 3 – Total Population of Concern Tanzania (UNHCR, 2017e) 48 Figure 4 – Refugee Population Tanzania (UNHCR, 2017b). 49 Figure 5 – Expansion Nyarugusu refugee camp 2015 53 Figure 6 – Camp expansion Nyarugusu refugee camp and neighbouring communities 54 viii List of Abbreviations AIRD African Initiative for Relief and Development CCCM Camp Coordination and Camp Management CEMDO Community Environmental Management and Development Organization CRRF Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework CRI Core Relief Items CWS Christian World Service DC District Commissioner DED District Executive Director DNRO District Natural Resource Officer DRC Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) ECHO European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations GoT Government of Tanzania IFRC International Federation of Red Cross/Red Crescent Societies IMF International Monetary Fund INGO International Non-Governmental Organisation IOM International Organization for Migration IRC International Rescue Committee LGAs Local Government Authorities LNGO Local Non-Governmental Organisation MHA Ministry of Home Affairs