GLOSSARY Ahl-e Bayt. Members of the Prophet's family and their immediate descen­ dants, all of whom suffered violent persecution at the hands of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs. Alam. A metal crest usually mounted on a pole and meant to suggest the battle-standards caried by the martyrs of Karbala. Usually incised with the names of Abu al-Fadl al-Abbas, Ali Akbar, or the Ma'sumin, alams are housed in ashurkhanas and exposed for veneration during Muharram. Anjuman. "Association" or "group"; the word is used in Hyderabad in some contexts as an alternative designation for the matami guruh. Ashura. The tenth day of the month of Muharram, the day on which Husain was killed at Karbala (A.D. 680). Ashura is the focal day of the annual Muharram observances. Ashurkhana. The "Ashura-house," the shrine where alams are stored throughout the year and where majalis are held during Muharram. The ashurkhana may be as simple as a room in a private home containing the family's alams and partitioned by a black curtain from the rest of the house; or it may be as majestic as a walled compound with a courtyard, porticoes and a chapel housing relics associated with the Karbala martyrs. Ayk dast-e matam. Literally, "one-handed matam" The simplest form of ritual lamentation: breast-beating. Azadari. Lamentation; specifically, lamentation during Muharram for the Karbala martyrs. Batin. The interior, concealed or secret aspect of a thing. In Quranic interpretation batin refers to the esoteric or hidden meaning of a scriptural passage. Da'i. In medieval Ismaili tradition, a missionary-preacher who sought to initiate selected Muslims into the esoteric dimensions of Quranic scripture. 178 The Shiites Dhatti. A long votive-cloth which is fastened to an alam and draped along the length of the pole on which the alam is mounted. At Muharram dhattis are frequently offered to alams in an act of veneration which forms part of the ziyarah. Dhulfiqar. Name of the fork-bladed sword carried by the Imam Ali ibn Abi Tali b. Fatwa. A written opinion on a specific legaVmoral issue. Fatwas are issued by jurisconsults trained in Islamic law who are deemed competent to apply Quranic scripture to contemporary challenges. Ghulat. "Doctrinal extremists," Muslims guilty of ghuluww and thus re­ jected as heretics by orthodox Shiites and Sunnis alike. Ghuluww. Doctrinal extremism, beliefs rejected as heretical by orthodox Shiites and Sunnis alike. In Shiite religious history ghuluww has most typically involved attempts to deify the Imams or ascribe to them divine powers. Hadith. A "report" or "account," specifically a description of things said or deeds undertaken by the Prophet Muhammad. Hijrah. The Prophet Muhammad's withdrawal from Mecca (A.D. 622) northward to Medina, where he established a community of Muslims. The hijrah is taken as the point in time from which dates are reckoned in the Islamic calendar. ljma'. "Agreement" or "consensus," specifically the consensus of the Muslim community (as represented by its ulama) regarding a particular legaVmoral issue of interest to the society at large. Ijtihad. The use of independent reasoning, based on one's knowledge of Quranic scripture, the hadith literature, and the shari' ah, in order to arrive at a decision concerning a given moral/legal issue. Imam. In its simplest meaning, one who leads a congregation in prayer; the word is used in this sense in both the Shiite and Sunni traditions. The term is additionally used in Shiism, however, to designate the descendants of the Prophet's family who were the rightful spiritual and worldly heirs of the Glossary 179 Prophet's authority and hence were the true leaders of the Muslim commu­ nity. Intizar. "Expectation" or "waiting," a term used to describe a quietist stance of avoiding political confrontation with the powers of this world as one awaits patiently the return of the Hidden Imam as the Mahdi. Ismah. "Purity," a term used in Shiism to designate the state of perpetual sinlessness and infallibility inhering in the fourteen Ma' sumin. Kajir. An unbeliever; one who refuses to acknowledge God's absolute sovereignty. In popular Islamic usage today the term is sometimes used simply to designate polytheists or pagans; some Muslims, however, apply the term as well to Jews and Christians, despite their shared spiritual ancestry as adherents of Abrahamic faiths. Mahdi. "The one guided by God." In Twelver Shiite belief the messianic title to be assumed by the Hidden Imam when he returns at the end of time to preside over the Day of Final Judgment. Majlis (pl. majalis). A "gathering" or "assembly". The term is used espe­ cially to indicate a Muharram liturgy held within an ashurkhana. In Hyderabad the majlis typically comprises marsiyeh recitation and a sermon and will sometimes conclude with congregational performance of matam to the chanted accompaniment of nauhas. Marja' al-taqlid (pl. maraji' al-taqlid). A "reference point" or "model for imitation": a Shiite alim who is so outstanding for his learning and piety as to be worthy to serve as a moral exemplar for the generality of Shiite believers. Marsiyeh. A lamentation-chant in honor of the Karbala martyrs, most typically recited near the beginning of a Muharram majlis just after the opening prayers of invocation and preceding the sermon. Mashk. A leather waterskin, carried at Karbala by Husain's bodyguard Abbas when he tried to bring water from the Euphrates to the Imam's thirsting children. In Shiite iconography representations of the mashk evoke Abbas and his act of generosity. 180 The Shiites Ma'sum. A term derived from the word ismah and used to designate a person protected from sin and error of any kind. Ma'sumin. Plural of ma' sum; in Shiism Ma' sumin refers to the "fourteen Immaculate Ones," i.e. the Prophet Muhammad, his daughter Fatima, and the twelve Imams. Malam. In general, an action expressing grief, loss, or condolence. In Shiite Islam the term describes ritual actions oflamentation forthe Karbala martyrs. By far the most common form of matam is repeated breast-beating; but matam may include more extreme forms of self-mortification involving the use of razors, flails and knives. In Hyderabad matam is generally performed to the accompaniment of chanted nauhas. Matamdar (pl. matamdaran). Specifically, one who undertakes matam. The term is used in general to designate active participants in communal rituals of mourning during Muharram. M atami guruh (pl. matami guruhan ). The matami guruhan are Shiite men's guilds organized especially for the purpose of performing matam in honor of the Karbala martyrs during the season of Muharram. Mujtahid. A Shiite religious scholar who is considered sufficiently learned in Quranic sciences to undertake ijtihad. Namaz. The Persian term for salat, the daily ritual prayer that all Muslims are obliged to perform. Nauha. A lamentation-poem sung in honor of the Karbala martyrs, usually performed at the close of a Muharram liturgy. The nauha is chanted as an accompaniment to the performance of matam and thereby structures the rhythm and tempo of breast-beating and other forms of communal self-mor­ tification. Nauha-khan. The person who leads a congregation in the chanting of nauhas. Panje. The representation of a hand, palm open, fingers and thumb pointing upward. In Shiite iconography the panje symbolizes the Panjetan Pak or "Pure Five," the Prophet, Fatima, Ali, Hasan, and Husain. Alams and other Glossary 181 Shiite insignia are often created in the fonn of apanje, a device believed to represent the divine protection offered to those who are devoted to Ahl-e Bayt. In Hyderabad panje-alams are often sunnounted by a representation of Dhul fiqar, the fork-bladed sword of the Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib. B. D. Eerdmans, "Der Ursprung der Ceremonien des Hosein-Festes," Zeitschrift fUr Assyriologie 9 (1894), 280-307, traces the origin of the Muharrampanje to ancient Mesopotamian fertility liturgies and to iconography associated with the vegetation-god Tammuz. Panjetan Pak. The "pure five": the Prophet, his daughter Fatima, Ali, Hasan, and Husain. Sabil. A booth where water, tea, and other refreshments are distributed as an act of charity to passersby on their way to and from Muharram majalis. Customarily situated near the most popular ashurkhanas and decorated with banners celebrating the slain Imams, the sabil is established by sponsors as a gesture of largesse in honor of the Karbala martyrs and in memory of the thirst they suffered on the battlefield. Shahadah. The testimony of faith required of all Muslims, the assertion that "no god is there save God and Muhammad is the messenger of God." Sunnis and Shiites alike accept this fonnulation; but Shiites add the phrase, "and Ali is the beloved friend of God." Shari'ah. Divine law, made manifest to humankind by God through the Quran and applied to Muslim society by the ulama who elaborate the legaVmoral precepts encoded in Scripture. Shirk. The sin of rejecting taw hid through a polytheistic ascription of divine partners to God. Sineh-zani. "Chest-beating": Persian synonym for the tenn matam. Sunnah. Customary behavior, either as pertaining to an individual or to a community. The sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad is recorded in the hadith and serves as a model of conduct for Muslims. Tafsir. Commentary on passages from Quranic scripture. 182 The Shiites Tariqah (pl. turuq). Literally "path" or "way". Used in popular Islamic devotion to designate a mystical order or Sufi brotherhood. Tawhid. The doctrinal assertion of strict monotheism and divine unity: "no god is there save Allah." Ta'wil. Esoteric interpretation of the Quran, whereby one penetrates Scripture's literal meaning to the batin, the text's hidden inner significance. Tazia.