Durham E-Theses AN ANALYSIS OF THE DIETARY PRACTICES OF 9 TO 12 YEAR OLD PHYSICALLY ACTIVE CHILDREN AND THE NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE OF THEIR PARENTS WAUCHOPE, EMMA,CATHERINE How to cite: WAUCHOPE, EMMA,CATHERINE (2018) AN ANALYSIS OF THE DIETARY PRACTICES OF 9 TO 12 YEAR OLD PHYSICALLY ACTIVE CHILDREN AND THE NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE OF THEIR PARENTS, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/12821/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 AN ANALYSIS OF THE DIETARY PRACTICES OF 9 TO 12 YEAR OLD PHYSICALLY ACTIVE CHILDREN AND THE NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE OF THEIR PARENTS Emma Catherine Wauchope 2018 An Analysis of the Dietary Practices of 9 to 12 year old Physically Active Children and The Nutrition Knowledge of Their Parents Emma Catherine Wauchope Abstract Healthy eating through a balanced diet is fundamental to good health (Public Health England, 2016a). Active children are of interest given the energy demands of preparing for athletic performance or competition alongside normal growth and development. High energy expenditure, growth spurts and puberty, pressure to hit weight categories and disjointed fluid regulation are but a few factors that may affect their individual nutritional needs. There is minimal research into the requirements of pre-pubescent athletes (Petrie et al., 2004). It is unknown whether findings and recommendations in adult athletes can be extrapolated to their junior counterparts. Active 9-12 year-old children (n=18) from the North-East of England completed a three-day estimated food diary. To contextualise findings, data was compared to national recommendations and to findings of the National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2016). Secondary outcomes compared nutrition to scores of the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children, and to parental scores of the General Nutrition Knowledge Questionnaire (n=17). Energy intake (7.2 MJ/day) was higher than children nationally but lower than recommended. This is principally driven by low intake of carbohydrates (233.5 g/day) and fat (61.5 g/day). Intake of protein was comparatively high (69.49 g/day) and total fibre (9.44 g/day) low. Intake of Vitamin C (112.04 mg/day), iron (12.56 mg/day) and calcium (732.43 mg/day) was sufficient and Vitamin D (2.46 µg/day) low. There were no significant relationships (p<0.05) between energy intake and physical activity level or nutrition knowledge score of parents. These findings suggest active 9-12 year olds have low energy intake and may be deficient in some macronutrients and micronutrients. The power of this study does not allow for statistical conclusions to be drawn but the implications of these findings may be important to understanding and nutritionally supporting this population. i AN ANALYSIS OF THE DIETARY PRACTICES OF 9 TO 12 YEAR OLD PHYSICALLY ACTIVE CHILDREN AND THE NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE OF THEIR PARENTS Emma Catherine Wauchope A thesis submitted to Durham University for the Degree of Masters of Research Department of Sociology (Sport and Exercise Sciences), Durham University 2018 ii Contents List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ xi Statement of Copyright ........................................................................................................ xii Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................ xii Introduction.................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................... 1 1.2. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 2 Literature Review ........................................................................................... 8 2.1. Physical Activity – An Introduction ......................................................................... 8 2.2. Physical Activity Guidelines .................................................................................... 8 2.2.1. Guidelines in Early Childhood ......................................................................... 9 2.2.2. Uptake of UK Guidelines ............................................................................... 10 2.2.3. Uptake of Guidelines in Early Years .............................................................. 10 2.3. Benefits of Exercise in Childhood ......................................................................... 11 2.3.1. Prevention of Chronic Disease ...................................................................... 12 2.3.2. Psychosocial Effect ....................................................................................... 13 2.4. The Assessment of Physical Activity ..................................................................... 14 2.4.1. Primary Forms of Measurement ................................................................... 14 2.4.2. Objective Measurements ............................................................................. 16 2.4.3. Subjective Measurements ............................................................................ 16 2.4.4. The Physical Activity Questionnaire .............................................................. 18 2.5. Physical Activity – In Conclusion ........................................................................... 19 2.6. Nutrition – An Introduction .................................................................................. 20 2.7. Nutrition National Guidelines ............................................................................... 20 2.8. Differences in Nutrition for Active Children ......................................................... 21 iii 2.8.1. Differences in Nutrition for Young Athletes ................................................. 22 2.9. Energy Requirements ........................................................................................... 23 2.10. Macronutrient Requirements ............................................................................... 24 2.10.1. Protein .......................................................................................................... 24 2.10.2. Carbohydrate................................................................................................ 25 2.10.3. Fat ................................................................................................................ 26 2.11. Micronutrient Requirements................................................................................ 27 2.11.1. Vitamins ....................................................................................................... 28 2.11.2. Minerals ....................................................................................................... 29 2.12. Free Sugars ........................................................................................................... 33 2.12.1. International Comparison ............................................................................. 35 2.13. Summarising Macronutrient and Micronutrient Requirements in Children ......... 35 2.14. Fluid Intake and Requirements............................................................................. 36 2.14.1. The Effect of Diet on Hydration .................................................................... 37 2.15. Nutritional Supplements ...................................................................................... 38 2.15.1. Prevalence of Supplement Use ..................................................................... 39 2.15.2. Reasons for Supplement Use ........................................................................ 40 2.15.3. Sports Drinks ................................................................................................ 41 2.15.4. Energy Drinks and Caffeine ........................................................................... 43 2.15.5. Protein .......................................................................................................... 44 2.15.6. Multivitamins and Minerals .......................................................................... 46 2.15.7. Echinacea ..................................................................................................... 47 2.15.8. Iron ............................................................................................................... 48 2.15.9. Nutritional Supplements – In Conclusion ..................................................... 49 2.16. Nutritional Knowledge ........................................................................................