Karyological analysis of order testudines 2016 Introduction Here discuss about the biology that lead to studing the number of chromosome in the order tetudines and inheritance of the chromosomes in the offsprings and also studying of molecular structure and function of gene ,gene behavior of a cell or organism is the genetics And also studying gene distribution,variation in population Cytogenetic that is branch of genetics that considered with studing the structure and function of cell specially chromosomes it also give acloser and amore comprehensive studying on changes in structure and number of chromosomes from one organism to another and this fact was used in what is called cytotaxonomy. Cytotaonomy Is a branch of science that classifies the livinh organisms based on cytological studies (number of chromosomes meiosis behavior) Helps to stablish relationships between the different organism one of the methods of karyotyping Karyotype Is Method where total set of chromosomes of an organism is viewed under microsocope where the number of chromosome along with their length position of centromeres Banding pattern any differences between sex chromosomes and any others physical CHARACTERISTIC is observed (king, stansfield and mulligan 2006) Page 1 Karyological analysis of order testudines 2016 AIM OF WORk Karyological data are available for 55% of all cryptodiran turtle species including members of all but one family. Cladistic analysis of these data as well as consideration of other taxonomic studies, lead us to propose a formal classification and phylogeny not greatly different from that suggested by other workers. Werecognize 11 families and three superfamilies. The platysternid and staurotypidturtles are recognized at the familial level. Patterns and models of karyotypic evolution in turtles are reviewed and discussed. RESONE FOR STUDING TURTLE The history of where turtles are found is an important record for conservation and preservation efforts and an invaluable resource for anyone interested in turtle research. If you have ever wondered which turtles are found where you live, you are interested in turtle research. Because of diversity of this species of turtle and according to a lots of scientists that made research on order testudines that will disscuss in the following , so that I want studing this research Within the conversation community, turtles are considered to be in crisis situation , brought about by human activities {reviewed in van Dijk et al ., 2000; turte conversation fund 2002} Page 2 Karyological analysis of order testudines 2016 Currently , out of 200 species of fresh water turtle and tortoises listed by the world wide union for te listed as he conversation of nature {iucn} in their red list {IUCN, 2006} , 24 are Listed as critically endangerd HOWEVER, about 100 species of fresh water turtles are not listed by IUCN in the red list , either because they are mor common or have not yet been evaluated for listing this mean that at least about 42% of freshwater turtles and tortoises are considered to be facing a high risk of extinction , and are in need of urgent conversation action Turtles have been prized as pets or killed for commercial products and although some of this trade is met by commercial farms illegal harvest from the wild occurs on a broad scale In many {thorbjarnarson et al.,2000} Morphology and taxonomy Introduction of turtles A turtle is an animal in armor. Much of its body lies within a protective shell, which has openings for the turtle's four chunky legs, short tail, and head. When danger threatens, many turtles pull legs, tail, and head into the shell. But unlike some animals that live in shells, such as hermit crabs and snails, a turtle cannot crawl out of its shell. The shell is part of the turtle's body. All turtles belong to the class of backboned animals known as reptiles. This class also includes snakes, lizards, and crocodiles. Turtles are the oldest group. The first turtles crawled about on earth more than 250,000,000 years ago. Turtles have changed very little since that time. Turtles are found in almost all temperature and tropical regions of the world. Many turtles spend all or most of their lives in fresh water. They may live in swamps, ponds, running streams, or even roadside ditches. Page 3 Karyological analysis of order testudines 2016 They come up on dry land to sun themselves or to lay eggs. Other turtles live completely on land. Still others live in warm seas, sometimes following warm currents far northward. The name "turtle" is often used to identify those animals that live in water. The name "tortoise" frequently refers to a turtle that lives on land. The American Indian name "terrapin" usually refers to small freshwater turtles, especially those used for food. But these groupings are not strictly scientific. In this article, all of these animals will be referred to generally as turtles, though the proper name for a specific animal, such as Galápagos tortoise, will be used.Fig1 )Fig.1) Page 4 Karyological analysis of order testudines 2016 General characteristics (around300species)- Rigid shell enclosing the soft organs (Fig 2) -Carapace= dorsal part -Plastron= ventral part -Shell is composed of dermal bony elements covered by keratinous scutesor leathery skinthe shell incorporates ribs, vertebrae, portions of pectoral girdle-Plastron can be rigidor hinged -Shell shape –ranges from domed(in terrestrial species) Flat to hydrodynamic shaped(aquaticand marine species (fig3) Page 5 Karyological analysis of order testudines 2016 pads (terrestrial Absence of teeth (keratinous beakinstead) -Freshwater species carnivorous, omnivorous, or herbivorous; terrestrial usually herbivorous. -Limb structure –flippers(marine species), webbing between digits (freshwater species), stout limbs with thickened species) "classification" Kingdom Animalia animals Phylum Chordata chordates Subphylum Vertebrata vertebrates Superclass Gnathostomata jawed vertebrates Class sauropsida Subclass anapsida Order testudines Page 6 Karyological analysis of order testudines 2016 Suborder Cryptodira Super family testudinidae Family Emydidae (Pond Turtles/Box and Water Turtles) Family Testudinidae (Tortoises) Family Geoemydidae (Bataguridae) (Asian River Turtles, Leaf and RoofedTurtles, Asian Box Turtles) Family Platysternidae (Big-headed Turtles) Family chelydridae ( snapping turtle) Superfamily Trionychoidea Family Carettochelyidae (Pignose Turtles) Family Trionychidae (Softshell Turtles) Page 7 Karyological analysis of order testudines 2016 Superfamily Kinosternoidea Family Dermatemydidae (River Turtles) Family Kinosternidae (Mud and Musk Turtles) Superfamily Chelonioidea Family Cheloniidae (Sea Turtles) Family Dermochelyidae (Leatherback Turtles) Suborder Pleurodira Family Chelidae (Austro-American Sideneck Turtles) Superfam. Pelomedusoidea Family Pelomedusidae (Afro-American Sideneck Turtles) Family Podocnemididae (Madagascan Big-headed and American Sideneck River Turtles) Sauropsida ("lizard faces") is a group of amniotes that includes all existing reptiles and birds as well as their fossil ancestors and relatives. Sauropsida is distinguished from Synapsida, which includes mammals and their fossil ancestors. This clade includes Parareptilia and other extinct clades. All living sauropsids are members of the sub-group Diapsida. An anapsid is an amniote whose skull does not have openings near the temples.[1] Traditionally, the Anapsida are the most primitive subclass of reptiles, the ancestral stock from Page 8 Karyological analysis of order testudines 2016 which Synapsida and Diapsida evolved, making anapsids paraphyletic. It is however doubtful whether all anapsids lack temporal fenestra as a primitive trait, or whether all the groups traditionally seen as anapsids truly lacked fenestra DeBraga, M. (1996) Temple indicates the side of the head behind the eyes. The bone beneath the temporal bone as well as part of the sphenoid bone. (Fig5) Cryptodira is a suborder of Testudines ;Zug, G. R. 1966) that includes most living tortoises and turtles. Cryptodira differ from Pleurodira (side- neck turtles) in that they lower their necks and pull the heads straight back into the shells, instead of folding their necks sideways along the body under the shells' margins. They include among their species freshwater turtles, snapping turtles, tortoises, soft-shell turtles, and sea turtles. Two circumscriptions of the Cryptodira are commonly found. One is used here; it includes a number of primitive extinct lineages known only from fossils, as well as the Eucryptodira. These are, in turn, made up from some very basal groups, and the Centrocryptodira contain the prehistoric relatives of the living cryptodires, as well as the latter, which are collectively called Polycryptodira. (Gaffney, E. S. 1975) Page 9 Karyological analysis of order testudines 2016 The family Testudinidae contains approximately 11 genera and 40-50 species the plastron is usually without a hinge carapace is domed, Ornat-box turtle (family emydidae) (Fig6) Adaptations for terrestrial life include thick, elephantine rear legs, short, web-less feet, and short digits. The forelegs usually have heavy scales on the anterior surface. Tortoises can be diagnosed by the lack of glands in the axillary and inguinal regions and the presence of only four digits on the rear feet.( Gray, J. E. 1870) The Testudinidae are most closely related to the pond turtles (Emydidae) and are included along with that family in the Testudinoidea. the Emydidae