THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL From Pioneers to New Millennials A dynamics of identity among British Bangladeshi women in London Thesis presented for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in the University of Hull by Lubna Ferdowsi School of Education and Social Sciences The University of Hull July 2017 Abstract This dissertation is an ethnography about British Bangladeshi women of different age groups who live in London. In this study I explore the identity dynamics of these women. I do this through an intersectional approach, focussing on age, generation, socio- economic status, and time of migration. I argue that the term ‗generation‘, which has been used in existing literature on diaspora and migration, is confusing and inappropriate to address the diversity of diaspora people in relation to their intersectional and contextual differences. Hence, a significant finding is that using ‗cohort‘ can be an appropriate way to avoid generalizing diasporan, and address diversity among them and the different contexts in which they are situated. My participants have been through distinctive experiences in their process of migration, most at different and particular stages of their life cycles, and in some cases, even women in the same age groups have had different contextual or transnational upbringing in the pre and post migration phases. Therefore, arguing that the term ‗generation‘ is confounding, I have preferred to categorise my participants as members of particular ‗cohorts‘ from an ethnographic perspective through intersecting their age, time of migration, and contextual upbringing. I have termed them as follows: the Pioneer Cohort, the Cooked in Britain Cohort, the British-born Cohort and the New-migrant Cohort. I argue that by playing multiple, dynamic and multifaceted roles in a diaspora and transnational space, these diverse groups of women are constantly forming and reforming their positionality. This process of forming fluid and dynamic identities in context, which I call ‗contextual identity‘, challenges the feminization of ethnicity in a diaspora space, and provides diaspora women of different age groups with the power of speech, prominence, belonging, demonstration and self-confidence to contribute in a changing diaspora and transnational space. i Acknowledgements In writing this thesis, I have been privileged in being able to depend upon both official and personal support networks. This research would not have been possible without the co-operation of all Bangladeshi immigrant women in East London, who participated in the research process. I am extremely grateful to them and their family and relatives in the UK, and Bangladesh who met me with natural hospitality and delight at being a part of my study and frankly shared their experiences with me. I also want to show my gratitude to all those who were not participants as such, but who, through occasionally prolonged and occasionally brief snatches of discussion or chat at Bangladeshi community occasions and elsewhere, helped me develop an idea of the recent account and contemporary issues concerning the Bangladeshi women in the UK. I would like to express my profound sense of gratitude and indebtedness to my supervisors Dr Mark Johnson, now at Goldsmiths, and Dr Lisa Dikomitis, now at Keele University, who both continued to supervise me when they left the University of Hull. I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Dr. Mark Johnson, whose careful supervision and indefatigable guidance, allowed me to free myself from intellectual dilemma of my own creation. I am intensely indebted to my supervisor, Dr. Lisa Dikomitis, for her very useful guidance, valuable suggestions, constructive criticism, and incredible patience. I am obliged to them for properly arbitrating times at which I needed to be pushed to develop my research work and juncture on which I needed my own space to develop my thinking. I am forever indebted to them for their unrelenting support during my pregnancy in the third year of my PhD. My gratitude is also due to my former co-supervisor, Dr. Lucy Michael, now at University of Ulster, who supervised the first two years of my PhD, helped me in developing my research ideas, and set me thinking about the issues in terms of conducting successful ethnographic field-work in a diaspora community. I am also very grateful to my official supervisor, Dr Julia Holdsworth (University of Hull), who was always so helpful and provided me with her assistance when needed. I would also like to acknowledge Dr Suzanne Clisby (University of Hull). Her assessments, remarks, and suggestions in firming the methodological approach contributed significantly to improve the standard of the thesis. I especially thank her for organizing the ‘Interdisciplinary Gender Studies Postgraduate Conference’. The ability to talk over and ii get opinions on half-formed ideas in the considerate setting this environment represented was irreplaceable in developing creative work. I am sincerely grateful to the University of Hull for funding my study and giving me the opportunity to work on Bangladeshi diaspora in Britain. I gratefully acknowledge the financial support received from the FfWG (Funds for Women Graduates) grant. I have valued the way in which the friendly research environment within the Faculty of Arts, Cultures and Education at the University of Hull enabled the development of my thought at all phases of the PhD route. My appreciation to all those who have passed an inspiring word, paid attention and been supportive. It made all the difference. I would like to convey my heartfelt gratitude to my family for their unflagging love and care throughout my PhD. My heartiest greetings go to my mother, Raihana Begum, for her unswerving moral support, inspiration and for helping me to keep on keeping on since 2011. I also thank my father, Dr. Tahir Ahmed, my husband, Muksud Mohammad and my sisters Naima Ahmed Tamanna, and Fariha Tahir, who have encouraged me to work on and have given their entire support over the years. My life in England has been in the pleasant company of my close friend Richie Shah to whom I am thankful for the support and love she has given me throughout my PhD. Last, but not least, sweet thanks to my little son, Farhan Muksud, for his love and support, and for allowing me to spend time on my research. Pursuing a PhD can be a self-indulgent experience but having my son in my writing up period opened my eyes, and built my inner strength and self-confidence to a high level. iii Table of Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Influences and biography 1 1.2 Situating research and research themes 2 1.3 Structure of the thesis 4 CHAPTER 2: THEORY AND METHODS 8 2.1 Key theoretical concepts 8 2.1.1 Subjectivity 8 2.1.2 Positionality 9 2.1.3 Agency 11 2.1.4 Defining, interrogating and employing ‘intersectionality’ 12 2.2 Methodology 20 2.2.1 Feminist methodology 21 2.2.2 Choosing and gaining access to the field 24 2.2.3 Role and relationships: position of a female ethnographer in the politics of fieldwork 26 2.2.4 Research strategies 35 CHAPTER 3: BANGLADESHIS IN BRITAIN 48 3.1 Migration, settlement and British Bangladeshis 48 3.1.1 Post-war migration: family reunification and community formation 48 3.1.2 Changing process of migration: transnational migration 49 3.1.3 Impact of chain /transnational migration in increasing community size 50 3.1.4 Community politics, identity formation and intergenerational dynamics 50 3.1.4.1 First generation in community identity politics and formation 51 3.1.4.2 Second generation and changing community politics 53 3.1.4.3 Third generation: a shift from community identity politics to institution based religious politics 55 3.1.5 Religious identity 58 3.1.5.1 Role of religious organisations and politics of the community 58 3.2 The British-Bangladeshi community (1980 onwards) 61 3.2.1 Emergent community 61 iv 3.3 Bangladeshi women in Britain 63 3.3.1 Transnational migration and women in the community 63 3.3.2 Feminization of the migration process 65 3.3.3 Transnational marriage in maintaining transnational link and shaping the community 66 3.3.4 Women in racialised migration 70 3.3.5 Young women and contemporary transnational marriage 72 3.3.6 Muslim identity’ practice of young women 74 3.3.7 Gender and political identity 78 3.4 Concluding discussion 79 CHAPTER 4: FOUR COHORTS IN THE BANGLADESHI COMMUNITY IN LONDON 82 4.1 Cohorts and generations 82 4.1.1 Problematizing the concept of ‘generation’ 82 4.1.2 The use of the concept ‘cohort’ in my research 84 4.2 Four cohorts 85 4.2.1 Problematizing the class system 85 4.2.2 The Pioneer Cohort 88 4.2.3 The Cooked in Britain Cohort 92 4.2.4 The British-born Cohort 96 4.2.5 The New-migrant Cohort 99 4.3 Summary 101 CHAPTER 5: DIASPORA POSITIONING: MARRIAGE, CHANGING FAMILY ROLES AND RELATIONSHIPS 103 5.1 Marriage and family relationships in a changing diaspora and transnational context 104 5.1.1 The Pioneer Cohort, the dedicated carers: wifehood in a diaspora family 105 5.1.2 The Cooked in Britain Cohort: the reformulation of diaspora family 110 5.1.3 The British-Born Cohort: deconstruction of ethnicity, bargaining with patriarchy 115 5.1.4 The New-migrant Cohort: the powerful decision maker within diaspora family 117 5.2 Recent migration: new challenges and changing views in the family formation 119 5.2.1 The powerful coping mechanism of the New-migrant Cohort 120 5.2.2 Multifunctional and multifaceted role –play and gender relationship in family 124 5.3 Summary 128 v CHAPTER 6: TRANSNATIONAL POSITIONING: GENERATIONAL TRANSFERAL OF ETHNIC CULTURAL VALUES AND PRACTICES AND CHANGING TRANSNATIONAL LINK 130 6.1Women across generations: transferring a collective sense of cultural identity 131 6.1.1 “She told us the story how she was grew up, so we had a visual image” 131 6.2 Transferring values: generational struggles 137 6.2.1 “I try to convince her to wear a scarf at least” 137 6.2.2 “I couldn’t share with my mother, so I make sure my children can share with me” 139 6.2.3 “My generation still repeats “do” and “don’t”’ 141 6.3 Changing but strong ties from long distance 142 6.3.1 “But that made our bonding even stronger” 143 6.3.2 “They can’t take any decision without asking me” 144 6.3.3 “A new space..