Factors Influencing Coca Reduction Initiatives 2 he Andean region is complex in its geology, ecology, and cultural history. This complexity precludes simple or broadly applicable coca substitution strategies. Success- ful, cooperative, counternarcotics efforts among the UnitedT States and Andean countries require careful consideration of all of these factors. This chapter examines the biophysical, cultural, socio-political, and economic conditions that may affect the success of efforts to reduce coca cultivation in Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia. GEOECOLOGY OF THE NORTHERN AND CENTRAL ANDES Clear understanding of the biological and physical environ- ments in the Andean region is critical for appropriate design of projects to eradicate or offer alternatives to coca. The natural environmental diversity of Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia results largely from the abrupt altitude changes in the Andes mountain system (2). There is a vertical succession of ecozones, ranging from rainforest and desert at the lowest levels to mountain tundra, snow, and ice at the highest (104). The enormous latitudinal span (approximately from 10 degrees north to 40 degrees south along the western edge of South America) and longitudinal breadth (approximately between 80 degrees west and 60 degrees west) also make for considerable variations in climate, soil, vegetation, and land-use (104). Thus, the local and regional diversity of biophysical environments requires that any project be site- specific (2). 35 36 I Alternative Coca Reduction Strategies in the Andean Region I Andean Geography and Geology montaña, has been profoundly modified by coffee The Andean cordillera (mountain range) di- plantation agriculture. The best coffee soils are vides the South American continent into Atlantic developed on volcanic ash, which is sensitive to and Pacific drainage systems and is part of a great erosion. The low Andean foothills are relatively band of active crustal uplift that circles the Pacific humid with annual rainfall of at least 2,000 mm Ocean. The Andes are among the youngest and a mean annual temperature of at least 24 mountains on Earth, and consequently, soils are degrees C. Low-productivity, lateritic soil covers generally shallow, stony, and undifferentiated much of the area, particularly in cleared fields (104). Extensive volcanic and earthquake activity where maize, manioc (yuca), plantain, and cocoa has characterized the region’s geologic history, are cultivated. and this activity continues today (84). Any The Central Andes extend from northern Peru technologies dependent on the land’s surficial to the Antofagasta Province in Chile and Cat- characteristics---g. g., road-building or soil identi- amarca Province in Argentina. They are charac- fication and use-must deal with the geologic terized by a succession of agricultural zones with variability, as well as the instability of the area varied climatic conditions along the mountains’ due to ongoing mountain-building (2). flanks and by large, high-altitude plateaus above The Andean cordillera is made up of many 3,500 masl, which do not occur in the Northern interwoven ranges, which include high intermon- Andes. Variously called puna or altiplano, these tane plateaus, basins, and valleys. Colombia, plateaus, separated and surrounded by higher Peru, and Bolivia are located within the Northern mountains, were the heartland of the pre- and Central Andean ranges (figure 2-l). Columbian Andean empire (2). The Northern Andes extend from coastal Vene- The soil fertility of the northern altiplano zuela and Colombia to northern Peru and contain generally is good (147). The western Central several broad ecosystems falling into four altitu- Andean ranges are relatively arid with desert-like dinal belts, the highest and coldest of which rises soils, whereas the eastern ranges are more humid to 4,500 meters above sea level (masl). The and have more diverse soils (26). The eastern Northern Andes subregion is distinguished from the rest of the region by higher relative humidity slopes of the Central Andes in many ways are and greater climatic symmetry between the east- similar to the wet forests of the Northern Andes. ern and western flanks of the range (2). Unlike the Northern Andes, however, these The three main warm ecosystems of the North- slopes have a dry season (2). ern subregion are the upper montaña (mountain) The altiplano and páramo (heathland) are slopes, the intermediate-level coffee belt, and the broken by river valleys. Cutting deep into the foothills. The upper montaña slopes, with their lofty plateaus, these valleys descend 2,000 to vast, dense forests, have experienced little ad- 3,000 meters, often in a few tens of kilometers, verse human impact. However, in some areas, and create areas of highly distinctive relief, deforestation may have contributed to increased climate, habitat, and agricultural uses. The upper stream flow and erosion. Precipitation is heavy, ends of the valleys merge with the high plateaus. averaging 4,000 mm per year, and physical and Their middle slopes and alluvial plains are chemical weathering and erosion can be intense. temperate, referred to as kichwa by indigenous The coffee belt, immediately below the upper Andean peoples. Lower parts of the valleys, the 2—Factors Influencing Coca Reduction Initiatives 137 Figure 2-l-Generalized Geographic Map of Andean Coca-Producing Countries Guajira Region @ Cartagena & W / ~ Magdalena River Cauca River -fl, @ w I n z Orinoco < I COLOMBIA River K \ .*.. f“i’: . .l . Region Vaup& W?+’-- Region Region $ EQUATOR <> River . Alto Huallaga -- ‘”~;WX#o, , L Region :’:::’>??~-; ;, .,, . ,? ~ +lW%q,..:.:.+; ..:? Lim ~~• ...$&#l?#$-$“’i N-’i=7 (n w BOLIVIA ,“ . ~. n – z Cuzco\’‘- “’:, - .:-%.; .: < ~d/. , 2 Yungas Region m 1- E c1 Chapare Region SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1993. 38 I Alternative Coca Reduction Strategies in the Andean Region yungas, can be wet or hot and dry as a result of throughout the year in the highlands and on the rain-shadow.l coast in the Northern Andes. South of central Unlike regions of gentle topography (e.g., the Ecuador, at about the latitude of Guayaquil, central United States or Amazon basin), where coastal aridity increases, culminating in the Ata- regional climatic variation can be determined cama desert of northern Chile. In the Central from a few widely spaced measurements, regions Andes, highland precipitation is seasonal, and with extreme topographic and climatic features amounts are approximately one-half those meas- (e.g., the Andean cordillera) make regional pro- ured in the northern Andes. The aridity of the jections difficult (2). For example, while air Central Andean coastal zone is the result of the temperature generally decreases with increasing drying effect of the cold Pacific Humboldt altitude, variability of mountain topography can current, and the southern Pacific high-pressure produce much lower-than-expected air tempera- cell (59). Much of the southern portion of the tures at any altitude. Central Andes in Bolivia is also arid. The dry Some general climatic patterns, however, are season causes soil moisture deficits and dimin- discernible in the Andes. For example, with ished stream flow for a part of each year. increasing distance south of the equator the seasonality of precipitation increases, whereas 9 Andean Agroecosystems2 the total annual amount generally decreases. At the regional or macroscale level, vegetation Humidity commonly increases with increasing patterns in the Northern and Central Andes tend altitude, but only to some intermediate altitude to reflect climatic zones determined by latitude (e.g., approximately 1,000 masl on the eastern and altitude. At the local or mesoscale level, slope of the Ecuadoran Andes at the equator) however, this correspondence becomes less pre- above which it declines (92). The variability of cise, as local variations in soil type, slope, mountain terrain also affects precipitation, such drainage, climate, and human intervention come that conditions of extreme wetness and aridity into play. may exist in close proximity. Annual tempera- Most of the Northern Andes can support lush tures in upper reaches of many Andean valleys vegetation because of the high humidity and may average 8 degrees C with frequent nocturnal relatively high temperatures. Tropical rainforests frosts, whereas lower levels may average as high and other types of evergreen and deciduous as 24 degrees C, with no frost. Related to this forests dominate this subregion, with consider- temperature gradient is a pattern of greater able symmetry of vegetation types on the eastern rainfall at the valley heads, and less rain at lower and western flanks of the mountains. The lowest altitudes, resulting in part from mountain rain- slopes support agriculture year-round, producing, shadow effect (2). for example, bananas, yuca, and cocoa. The weather patterns of the Andean cordillera Aridity reduces vegetation growth and agricul- and Amazon basin in general reflect movements tural options in some areas of the Central Andes. of high and low-pressure “cells’ associated with The Atacama desert region of the coastal plain, the Intertropical Convergence Zone, a low- for example, is one of the driest places on Earth. pressure trough that moves further north and However, the lower valley floors of the Central south on a seasonal basis. Precipitation is high Andean western ranges, and the lands at the foot 1 Rain-shadow occurs when moist easterly winds lose their moisture as they pass