JIM CROW’S LEGACY: SEGREGATION STRESS SYNDROME A Dissertation by RUTH K. THOMPSON-MILLER Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 2011 Major Subject: Sociology Jim Crow’s Legacy: Segregation Stress Syndrome Copyright 2011 Ruth K. Thompson-Miller JIM CROW’S LEGACY: SEGREGATION STRESS SYNDROME A Dissertation by RUTH K. THOMPSON-MILLER Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, Joe R. Feagin Committee Members, Jane Sell William Alex McIntosh Rogelio Saenz Head of Department, Mark Fossett May 2011 Major Subject: Sociology iii ABSTRACT Jim Crow’s Legacy: Segregation Stress Syndrome. (May 2011) Ruth K. Thompson-Miller, B.A., University of Florida; M.S., Texas A&M University Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Joe R. Feagin This dissertation is based on a qualitative research project that documents the experiences of nearly 100 elderly African Americans who lived in the total institution of Jim Crow. The collective long lasting psychological effects connected with the racial violence that occurred in the total institution are a critical aspect. In the interviews African Americans shared how on a daily basis they found themselves dealing with anxiety, fear, humiliation, shame, and stress. The narratives were analyzed utilizing the extended case method. The dissertation documents and explores symptoms of a “segregation stress syndrome” for the chronic, enduring, extremely painful experiences and responses to the total institution of Jim Crow that are indicated by numerous respondents in this research project. Preliminary findings indicate that the symptoms of “segregation stress syndrome” are similar to PTSD symptoms documented in psychiatric literature. However, “segregation stress syndrome” differs from PTSD because the traumatic experience was not a one-time occurrence; it was sustained, over time, in iv African American communities. In addition, the racial violence that occurred was a form of systematic chronic stress, the type that has been shown to have a detrimental impact on a person’s psychological well-being. Lastly, the historical and collective trauma that ensued has contributed to an intergenerational aspect of “segregation stress syndrome.” The intergenerational aspect predisposes some younger African Americans to psychological damage, stress, and trauma even though contemporary forms of racial violence are seemingly less damaging. v DEDICATION To my mother, Carolyn Thompson, and my beloved deceased father, Millard Thompson, and Nefertiti, Myia, and Yasmeen for all their continued love and support. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my committee chair, Dr. Joe Feagin, for all his support, kind words, wisdom, and inspiration. I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Alex McIntosh, Dr. Jane Sell, and Dr. Rogelio Saenz, for their guidance and support throughout this research. A special thanks to Dr. Jane Sell, who is an angel. Dr. Sell, thank you for all your support, time, and guidance. It has been an honor to have you as a mentor, a friend, and a confidant. You have been a source of strength and inspiration throughout this process. There are no words that can describe how grateful I am. Special thanks to Dr. Brian Williams who encouraged me throughout the dissertation process. Dr. Williams has been an invaluable source of inspiration and wisdom. Thanks to all my friends, colleagues, and the Department of Sociology faculty and staff for making my time at Texas A&M University a great experience. Thanks to Christi Ramirez for all her assistance and kindness. I also want to extend my gratitude to the Department of Liberal Arts and Science, which has a vision of diversity that spearheaded my coming to Texas A&M. Also, thanks to my sisters and brothers, Dorothea, Jeffrey, Anita, Joseph, Loretta, and my brother-in-law, Joseph Royal. Thanks to my mother, Carolyn, and my deceased father, Millard, who always showed me love and support. Finally, I want to give a heartfelt thanks to my daughter Nefertiti for all her encouragement, patience, and love throughout this process. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................. iii DEDICATION .......................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 1 The Significance of the Project...................................................... 3 Historical Background.................................................................... 6 The Macro vs. Micro Perspective .................................................. 9 The Macro Collective Experience.................................................. 12 Jim Crow’s Total Institution .......................................................... 14 The Research Questions................................................................. 28 Outline of Remaining Chapters...................................................... 29 II CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES................ 33 Symbolic Interaction...................................................................... 33 Goffman and Dramaturgy.............................................................. 38 Identity Theories ........................................................................... 42 The White Racial Frame ............................................................... 50 Mental Health and Stress: A Macro Experience........................... 63 III METHODOLOGY............................................................................... 76 The Project..................................................................................... 76 The Participants.............................................................................. 77 The Importance of Qualitative Research........................................ 78 Interview Setting............................................................................ 80 viii CHAPTER Page Fieldwork ....................................................................................... 80 Newspaper Articles ........................................................................ 82 Data Analysis ................................................................................. 85 Limitations of the Study................................................................. 87 Summary ........................................................................................ 88 IV RACISM AND TRAUMA: THE COLLECTIVE EXPERIENCE...... 89 The History..................................................................................... 89 The Collective Experience............................................................. 95 Collective Symbols of Trauma....................................................... 98 Traumatic Racial Events................................................................ 101 Segregation Stress Syndrome......................................................... 108 V FRONTSTAGE TRAUMATIC RACIAL EVENTS........................... 117 The Atrocities in Jim Crow’s Total Institution.............................. 117 Racial Etiquette in the Frontstage .................................................. 119 Frontstage: Symbols of Oppression ............................................... 137 Bus Boycott.................................................................................... 147 Light-Skinned Blacks: Negotiating White Spaces......................... 181 Frontstage: White Spaces............................................................... 190 VI RAPE: A WEAPON OF TERROR...................................................... 205 Total Institution: Rape and Sexual Abuse...................................... 205 Frontstage: The Trauma of Rape.................................................... 216 Two Little Girls and Two Types of Justice.................................... 226 Black Men, Rape, and Social Injustices......................................... 237 The Stigma of Rape........................................................................ 247 Frontstage: Good White Folks ....................................................... 253 The Power of White Women.......................................................... 258 VII BACKSTAGE...................................................................................... 260 Backstage: Collective Coping Strategies ...................................... 260 Backstage: Curfews, Guns, and Alcohol........................................ 280 Backstage: A Safe Space to Practice the Performance .................. 287 Backstage: We Were a Community ............................................... 293 Backstage Resistance ..................................................................... 298 Coping with Segregation Stress Syndrome.................................... 309 ix CHAPTER Page VIII CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 316 Fifty Years Later: Are Things Better?...........................................