Theistic Arguments: The Craig Program Edwin K. P. Chong Version: March 12, 2005 1 Introduction Reference: • William Lane Craig, God, Are You There? Five Reasons God Exists and Three Reasons It Makes a Difference, Ravi Zacharias International Ministries, 1999. Motivation: • World’s greatest thinkers have wrestled with the question of God. • Is there a personal, transcendent being who created the universe and is the source of moral goodness? • Today’s university student is not trained to deal with this issue. • Instead of reflecting rationally on the issue, many students absorb uncritically the easy an- swers and secular prejudices of their teachers. • People who think that it doesn’t make a difference what you believe about God simply reveal that they haven’t thought very deeply about the question. • Even atheist philosophers, e.g., Jean Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, recognized that the ques- tion makes a tremendous difference. Three reasons it makes a difference: 1. If God does not exist, then life is ultimately meaningless. 2. If God does not exist, then we must ultimately live without hope. 3. If God does exist, then not only does life have meaning and hope, but there is also the possibility of coming to know God and his love personally. None of this shows that God exists. But it does show that it makes a tremendous difference whether God exists. • Blaise Pascal: even if the evidence for and against the existence of God were absolutely equal, the rational thing to do would be to believe that God exists. • Presumption of theism: presume that God exists unless we have some good reason to think that atheism is true. • But in fact the scales of the evidence are not equally balanced! 1 Edwin K. P. Chong, “Theistic Arguments: The Craig Program” 2 2 Arguments for the Existence of God What is an argument? • A set of statements that serve as premises leading to a conclusion. • Deductive argument: guarantees that the conclusion is true if the premises are true. • Inductive argument: makes it probable that the conclusion is true if the premises are true. What makes for a good argument? 1. It must be logically sound (“valid”). – Follow the rules of logic. 2. It must not be question-begging. – The reasons for believing the premises to be true must be independent of the conclu- sion. 3. The premises of the argument must be more plausible than their denials (“sound”). – Not required to have 100% certainty (not possible anyway). – Alternatives are possible; the question is not whether the denial of a particular premise is possible or even plausible; the question is whether the denial is as plausible or more plausible than the premise. Plausibility • Plausibility is subjective. • Often, we deny premises for the wrong reason (e.g., because we don’t like the conclusion!). • Existence of God has such personal significance that issues of the heart take on paramount importance. • J. I. Packer’s analogy on two sorts of people with an interest in God: travelers and balconeers. • The “skeptical inquirer” is not really an inquirer at all: he wants not to believe. • Important to consider arguments with an open mind and open heart. Five arguments • These are only a part of the evidence for God’s existence. • See, e.g., Plantinga’s two dozen or so arguments. • Together, these constitute a powerful cumulative case. Edwin K. P. Chong, “Theistic Arguments: The Craig Program” 3 3 First Reason: God makes sense of the origin of the universe The argument 1. Whatever begins to exist has a cause. 2. The universe began to exist. 3. Therefore, the universe has a cause. (A deductive argument.) The universe began to exist Actual infinites do not exist • If the universe did not begin to exist, then the number of past events in history is infinite. • David Hilbert: “The infinite is nowhere to be found in reality. It neither exists in nature nor provides a legitimate basis for rational thought. The role that remains for infinite to play is solely that of an idea.” • Operations involving infinity cannot be put in correspondence with the real world (e.g., sub- traction and cardinality of sets). • Past events are not just ideas, but are real. Therefore, the number of them must be finite. The Big Bang • Astrophysical evidence suggests a point around 15 billion years ago when the universe began to exist. Whatever begins to exist has a cause • An intuitively plausible metaphysical principle. • Ex nihilo, nihil fit. • Anthony Kenny (philosopher): “A proponent of the big bang theory, at least if he is an atheist, must believe that the universe came from nothing and by nothing.” • Kai Nielson (atheist philosopher): “Suppose you suddenly hear a loud bang ... and you ask me, ‘What made that bang?’ and I reply, ‘Nothing, it just happened.’ You would not accept that. In fact, you would find my reply quite unintelligible.” • Arthur Eddington (scientist): “The beginning seems to present insuperable difficulties unless we agree to look on it as frankly supernatural.” Edwin K. P. Chong, “Theistic Arguments: The Craig Program” 4 Personal cause The cause • Immediate conclusion from first two premises: the universe has a cause. • The cause must be uncaused, changeless, timeless, and immaterial. • But more can be said ... Personal cause • The cause cannot be “mechanical;” must be “personal.” • A mechanical cause cannot exist without its effect. (But the cause of the universe existed timelessly without the universe.) • A personal cause is associated with a free agent. • The only way for the cause to be timeless and the effect to begin in time is for the cause to be a personal agent who freely chooses to create an effect in time without any prior determining conditions. • Thus, we are brought, not merely to a transcendent cause of the universe, but to its personal creator. Counter-arguments: Whatever begins to exist has a cause Sub-atomic events are said to be uncaused. • Not all scientists agree with this “Copenhagen Interpretation” of subatomic physics (e.g., [David Bohm]). • Even with the above interpretation, particles do not come into being out of nothing, but out of the energy fluctuations in the sub-atomic vacuum. The same can be said about theories of the origin of the universe out of a primordial vacuum. • Robert Deltete (philosopher of science): “There is no basis in ordinary quantum theory for the claim that the universe itself is uncaused, much less for the claim that it sprang into being uncaused from literally nothing.” Premise 1 is true only for things in the universe, but it is not true of the universe. • This objection misconstrues the nature of the premise: it is a metaphysical principle (a prin- ciple about the very nature of reality). • J. L. Mackie (atheist): “I myself find it hard to accept the notion of self-creation from nothing, even given unrestricted chance. And how can this be given, if there really is nothing?” • On the atheistic view, there wasn’t even the potentiality of the universe’s existence prior to the Big Bang, since nothing is prior to the Big Bang. Edwin K. P. Chong, “Theistic Arguments: The Craig Program” 5 Counter-arguments: The universe began to exist Actually infinite number of things can exist. • For example: the number of members in the set of natural numbers {0, 1, 2, 3,...} is infinite. • Not all mathematicians and philosophers agree. • Potential infinites vs. actual infinites. • Existence in the mathematical realm does not imply existence in the real world. There are alternative theories to the Big Bang that do not involve a beginning. • The overwhelming verdict of the scientific community is that none of them are more probable than the Big Bang theory. • Theories like the Oscillating Universe (which expands and re-contracts forever) and Chaotic Inflationary Universe (which continually spawns new universes) do have potentially infinite future but turn out to have only a finite past. • Vacuum Fluctuation Universe theories (which postulate an eternal vacuum out of which our universe is born) cannot explain why, if the vacuum was eternal, we do not observe an infinitely old universe. • Quantum Gravity Universe theory [Stephen Hawking], if interpreted realistically, still in- volves an absolute origin of the universe. • Hawking: “Almost everyone now believes that the universe, and time itself, had a beginning at the Big Bang.” Other counter-arguments Just because we can’t explain it doesn’t mean God did it. • Misconstrues the argument: this argument is deductive. If the premises are granted, the conclusion follows; it doesn’t matter if it’s explanatory or not. • The argument does not postulate God to plug up a gap in our scientific knowledge. The scientific evidence is used only to support the plausibility of the truth of premise 2 (which is a religiously neutral statement and can be found in any textbook on astronomy). • The hypothesis of God is, in fact, genuinely explanatory (though not scientific, but personal). It explains some effect in terms of an agent and his intentions. • Personal explanations are valid and used all the time. Example: “Why is the kettle boiling? Because I put it on to make a cup of tea.” • Richard Swinburne (philosopher): there cannot be a scientific explanation of the first state of the universe. So, without a personal explanation, there is no explanation at all—which is metaphysically absurd. A cause must come before its effect, and there is no moment before the Big Bang. Edwin K. P. Chong, “Theistic Arguments: The Craig Program” 6 • Many causes and effects are simultaneous. • The moment of God’s causing the Big Bang just is the moment of the occurrence of the Big Bang.