THE EVOLUTION OF INDIGENOUS RESISTANCE IN BOLIVIA by REYNALDO TAPIA A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-Newark Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Global Affairs written under the direction of Dr. Kurt Schock and approved by: _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ Newark, New Jersey May, 2019 2019 Reynaldo Tapia ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION THE EVOLUTION OF INDIGENOUS RESISTANCE IN BOLIVIA By REYNALDO TAPIA Dissertation Director: Dr. Kurt Schock This dissertation describes the development and changes of nonviolent strategies of the indigenous people of Bolivia through crucial stages of Bolivian history and the social, cultural, and political effects this process has had in the country. The study addresses the benefits and effectiveness of nonviolent resistance over violence and will detail the gradual evolutionary process of nonviolent techniques and strategies from the early implementation of simple roadblocks to a complex variety of methods ranging from numerous forms of organized strikes to massive marches and protests. The study focuses on the changes in nonviolent strategies by utilizing Charles Tilly’s concept of “repertoire of contention” (1986). Repertoires are various tools of contention shared between social actors used to oppose a public decision they consider unjust or even threatening. The objective of this dissertation is to explain the shifts and changes in Bolivia’s repertoires throughout its history as violent forms of action which were primarily utilized during the initial stages of resistance had almost entirely disappeared and displaced by as a set of well-organized nonviolent campaigns. ii This dissertation is a single-country study that provides a contextual description of the changes and development of nonviolent resistance through four different stages of Bolivian history and the social, cultural, and political effects this process has had in the country. The indigenous people of Bolivia utilized forms of resistance that were inherited from previous episodes as repertoires were often learned, shared and repeated. The legacy of civil resistance has contributed and shaped the Bolivian national identity. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the support and help of my professors, colleagues, friends, and family. I wish to thank Professor Kurt Schock for his inspirational lectures on social movements and people power which led to my interest in the area of nonviolent resistance. I also need to extend my gratitude towards my dissertation committee members: Dr. Isaac Rojas-Perez, Dr. Brian Ferguson and Dr. Fredy Cante, who took their time to guide me through this process. I would like to express my appreciation to my classmates and friends that shared this challenging journey at Rutgers University, John Handal and Helyett Harris for motivating and assisting me with my dissertation. I also want to thank Ann Marin, Natalie Jesionka and Desiree Gordon at the Division of Global Affairs for their administrative support. Working on this project while having a fulltime job and as a military officer reservist was quite difficult; it would not have been possible without the help of nearly everyone I know. To my supervisors at the United States Office of Personnel Management for giving me the opportunity of being a part of the elite counter-intelligence group and allowed me to travel around the world, I am forever grateful. And of course, many thanks to my United States Navy Office of Naval Intelligence work colleagues who gave me feedback and advice. I am thankful for the ongoing encouragement of my parents, Rosario Morales and Reynaldo Tapia. Their love and unwavering support allowed me to find the determination, iv focus and strength to finish this dissertation. Without their sacrifices, and hard work ethics I would not be anything near who I am today. It was an honor to write about the country they left almost half a century ago. A special thanks you to my children, Tristan, Andrea and Joaquin, for their immeasurable patience as I wrote this dissertation, and my life companion, my wife, Paola Villamil, who has been there from the beginning, encouraging me to complete my Ph.D. Lastly, I salute the people of Bolivia who have endured so much, and yet continue their selfless struggle against social injustices. They have inspired me to write this dissertation. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments….……………………………………………...………….………….iv Table of Content ………………………………………………………...………….……vi List of Tables and Illustrations ………………………………………………..………....ix Acronyms ………………………………………………..………………………………..x Map of Bolivia …………………………………………………………………………..xii Chapter 1: Introduction …………...……………………………….……………................1 The Topic ...….………………………..…………………………………………..1 Defining the terms …...………………..…..………………………………………3 Importance of Research ….....…...……………………….…………………...…...7 Chapter 2: Theory and Methodology…………………………………………………..…10 Theory………………………………………………………………………..…..10 Nonviolent Resistance …………………………………………..……….10 Repertoires of Contention …………….………………………………… 16 Methodology ………………………………………..…………………………...19 Chapter 3: From Colonia Resistance to The Federalist War …...…………………….....26 3.1 The Legacy of Colonial Rebellions ……………………………………..…...26 3.2 Birth of a Nation ……………………………………………………….….…37 3.3 Melgarejo and the Age of the Caudillos ………………………..……….…...43 3.4 The Agrarian Reform and “Los Conservadores” ……………….....…………48 3.5 The Federalist War/Civil War ………………………………………………..52 3.6 The Zarate Wilka Rebellion ………………………………………………….57 vi 3.7 Conclusion …………………………...………………………………………60 Chapter 4: The 1952 Bolivian Revolution ...…………………… …………………….….70 4.1 “Los Liberales” and the Machaca/ Chayanta Indigenous Revolts ……………70 4.2 The Rise of the Miner Unions and Urban Intellectuals ….……………….…..76 4.3 The Chaco War, the “Socialist” Presidents and “Brazos caidos” strikes ……..82 4.4 The Massacre of Catavi and the Villarroel Legacy ……………………...……89 4.5 The Pulacayo Thesis and the Indigenous Rebellion during the “Sexenio”…...96 4.6 Bolivian National Revolution ……………………………………………....103 4.7 The Revolution takes a Turn ……………………………………..…………109 4.8 Conclusion ……………………………………………………...…………..114 Chapter 5: Military Dictatorships ……………………………………………...…...…123 5.1 Barrientos’ Military-Campesino Pact and the San Juan Massacre …….…..123 5.2 The Failures of Violence: Che Guevara and the Teoponte Guerrilla …….….130 5.3 J.J. Torres and the Popular Assembly ……………………………..……….138 5.4 Nonviolent Action against Banzer ………………………………………….144 5.5 The Land of the Coup ‘d esta, From Pereda to Meza ……………………..…153 5.6 The Fight for Democracy ……………………………………………….…..160 5.7 Conclusion ………………………………………………….……...……….168 Chapter 6: The Fight Against Neoliberalism……………………………..…………….177 6.1 “Bolivia is Dying” and the March for Life …………….…………….…….177 6.2 U.S. Counter-Narcotics in Bolivia, the Eastern Indigenous and Terrorism …186 6.3 The Rise of the Cocalero ……………………………………………...…….194 vii 6.4 “Plan Dignidad” and The Water Wars ………………………..…………….205 6.5 The Tax and Gas Revolts ………………………..……………...…….……215 6.6 Conclusion ……………………………………..….…………………...…..222 Chapter 7: Analysis…………….…………………………………..……...……………237 Chapter 8: Conclusion.. ……………………………………………………………...…256 Bibliography…………………………………………………...…………………….…258 Curriculum Vitale …………………………………………………...………………….275 viii LIST OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS Map 1.1 Bolivia………………………………………………………………………….xiii Table 1.1 Methods of Resistance from Colonia Period to The Federalist War ……..……66 Table 2.1 Methods of Resistance that led to the Bolivian National Revolution ………119 Table 3.1 Methods of Resistance during the Military Dictatorships …………………..174 Table 4.1 Methods of Resistance during the Fight Against Neoliberalism ……………..229 Table 5.1 Factors that Caused Changes in the Repertoires of Contention………………248 Table 5.2 Methods of Resistance Throughout Bolivian History……………………….254 Box 1.1 Coca Eradicated vs. New Coca crops (1986 to 1999) ……………..…………..206 Box 1.2 Changes in the Compensation per Hectare of Coca (1998 to 2002) …………..206 ix ACRONYMS ADEPCOCA Asociación Departamental de Productores de Coca (Departmental Association of Coca Producers) ADN Acción Democrática Nacional (National Democratic Action) CIDOB Confederación de Pueblos Indígenas de Bolivia (Confederation of Indigenous Peoples of Bolivia) CIPCA Centro de Integración y Promoción del Campesinado (The Center of Campesino Integration and Promotion) CNPZ Comisión Néstor Paz Zamora (Commission Nestor Paz Zamora) CNTCB Confederación Nacional de Trabajadores Campesinos de Bolivia (National Confederation of Campesino Workers of Bolivia) CNTCTK Confederación Nacional de Trabajadores Campesinos Tupaj Katari (National Confederation of Campeisno Workers Tupaj Katari) COB Central Obrera Boliviana (Bolivian Workers’ Center) COMIBOL Corporación Minera Boliviana (Bolivian Miner Corporation) CONADE Comité Nacional de Defensa de la Democracia (National Committee of Democratic Defense) CSCB Confederación Sindical de Colonizadores de Bolivia (Confederation of Trade Union of Colonizers of Bolivia) CSTB Confederación Sindical de Trabajadores de Bolivia (Confederation of Trade Unions of Workers of Bolivia) CSUTCB Confederación Sindical Única de Trabajadores Campesinos de Bolivia (Single Trade Union Confederation of Campesino Workers of Bolivia) DIRECO