The Miqat of al-Juhfa A Historical and Archaeological Study by Mohammad Alsubaie B.Sc., King Saud University, 2002 M.A., King Saud University, 2010 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Art History and Visual Studies Mohammad Alsubaie, 2018 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. The Miqat of al-Juhfa A Historical and Archaeological Study by Mohammad Alsubaie Ph.D. University of Victoria, 2018 Supervisory Committee Dr. Marcus Milwright, Supervisor Department of Art History and Visual Studies Dr. Evanthia Baboula, Departmental Member Department of Art History and Visual Studies Dr. Brendan Burke, Outside Member Department of Greek and Roman Studies ii Abstract “The Miqat of al-Juhfa, A Historical and Archaeological Study” Mohammad Shabib Alsubaie, PhD. University of Victoria, 2018 The Mīqāt of al-Juhfa is located in the west of Saudi Arabia about 187 km northwest of the Holy City of Mecca. Al-Juhfa is one of the five fixed places called Mawāqīt, or entry stations to the pilgrimage (Hajj). These Mawāqīt were designated during the early Islamic period for any pilgrim comes through them with the intention of Hajj. During the early Abbasid period, al-Juhfa was the largest occupied Mīqāt in the Islamic world. This study focuses primarily on historical and archaeological aspects of the Mīqāt of al- Juhfa during the early Islamic period. To illustrate these aspects, the study analyzed many primary sources that mention al-Juhfa in order to reconstruct the historical and cultural development of the site and to establish the extent to which it functions as an urban center. The study benefited from important information provided by these sources in this respect, such as the chronology of the site, its strategic location, topographical features, the nature of the landscape at different times, the function of specific objects, human activities that took place at the site, and factors that led to its prosperity and decline. The study also undertook a fieldwork at al-Juhfa site—primarily archaeological survey and excavation. This fieldwork enabled us to test the results of the textual analysis and to reveal other characteristics of the site (such as its cultural role, urban elements, planning and defences, architectural functions, building technique, building material, and other features). Moreover, the study analyzed both the formal and technical qualities of all archaeological discoveries on the site, comparing them with their analogues at other early Islamic sites in the Middle East. iii The study derived many results that clearly indicate the great importance of al-Juhfa as an urban center characterized by several urban functions during the early Abbasid period in the late of 8th century until its importance began to decline gradually between the second half of 11th century and the first half of 12th century. This chronology is supported by both written sources and the archaeological evidence. Several architectural elements and a collection of archaeological finds of different pieces of pottery, ceramic, glass, worked stone, and metal were discovered at al-Juhfa. These discoveries provide us with more information about the extent of mutual influence and active interaction between various cultures during pre-Islamic period as well as the high cultural and commercial level achieved by al-Juhfa and the relationship it had with other Islamic sites in the Middle East. iv Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ………………………………………………………….……….……… ii Abstract ………………………….…………………………...……………..……………………iii Table of Contents ………………...…………………………………..………………….…….…. v List of Forms ………………………….………………………………………………....…….. viii List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………..….……..… ix List of Maps ………………………………………………………………….……….……..…… x List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………….......………. xi List of Plates …………………………………………...……………………….………....…… xiv Acknowledgment ………………………………………………………...……………......…. xviii Dedication ………………………………………………………….………………..….……… xx Chapter 1: Introduction …...……………………………………………………….…...…...….….1 1. Topic of the Research and its Importance ………...…………………...….….…………... 2 2. References to al-Juhfa in the Primary Sources ……….…...…...………..…………….…...3 3. The Problem of Research and its Questions ……………………….…………......……....10 4. Methodology ……………………………………………………………………......…...12 5. Literature Review ……………………………………………………………........……..15 6. Structure of the Dissertation……………………………………………………….……..21 Chapter 2: The Mawāqīt of the Hajj ……………………………………………...…..……….….24 1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………….……………..25 2. The Meaning of the Mawāqīt and their Major Types and Dating………….……...…...….25 3. The Five Major Mawāqīt and their Evolution over time ……………....…………………32 The Mīqāt of Dhul-Hulaifa …………….………………...………….…...……..….. 32 The Mīqāt of al-Juhfa ……………………….……………………...…….……...…..33 The Mīqāt of Dhatu-ʿIrq …………………..…………...………...………….…..…..35 The Mīqāt of Yalamlam ……………………….……………...……………....….….36 The Mīqāt of Qarn-al-Manazil ……………….…………………...……...….………37 4. The Pilgrimage Routes and the Major Mawāqīt …………………………...…...…..…….40 Darb Zubayda (The Route of Zubayda) …………………………………….……….40 The Basri Route …………………………………………………………....………..45 The Darb al-Masri (The Egyptian Route) …………….…………...……..…...……..46 v The Darb al-Shami (The Syrian Route) ….…...…………………………...…….…..52 The Bahrain-al-Yamama Route …………...…………………………..…...….…….54 The Yemeni Route ………………...………………………………………..…….…55 The Omani Route …...…………………….……………………..……………....…..56 Chapter 3: The Geographical and Historical Aspects of al-Juhfa ...…….………………..……….59 1. Introduction …………………..……………….…………………………………………60 2. The Geographical Aspects ...…….…………………………………...……………....…..60 Administrative Affiliation ...……………………………………………………….. 60 Topography …………………………………………………………………...…….61 Climate ...………………….…………………………………………………...……64 Water Sources ...……………….…………………………………………….…...….65 Economic Activity of the Population ...……….………..………………………...…66 Settlement Centers Close to al-Juhfa ...………..………..…………………....…..….69 3. The Historical Aspects ...………………………………………………………….…….. 78 Pre-Islamic Period ...…………………………………………………………..…….79 The Era of the Prophet……….…………………………………………….……..….79 The Era of Rashidun Caliphs ………………...…………………………….…..……82 The Era of the Umayyad ...……………………………………….……………...…..83 The Era of the Abbasids ……………………………………..…………………..….84 Factors of Prosperity and Development …………..…………………………….…..86 Factors of the Decline and Abandonment ………………………………………..…88 Chapter 4: Archaeological Field Work in al-Juhfa ………………………………..……….……. 96 1. Introduction ……………………………..…………………………………..……..…….97 2. Archaeological Survey ………………………………………………………..…………97 Goals of the Archaeological Survey …..…………………………………….………98 Archaeological Survey Methods …………..……………………………..…..……..98 Results of the Archaeological Survey ……………………………………...……....100 3. Archaeological Excavation ………………………………………………………...…...111 Goals of the Archaeological Excavation …………………………………………..112 Archaeological Excavation Methodology ………………………………………....113 Results of the Archaeological Excavation ………….…………………….………..113 Chapter 5: Archaeological Evidence in the Near East ……………………..……………………123 1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….124 2. Archaeological Evidence of the Formative Years of Islamic Rule (622-692) ............…..124 3. Archaeological Evidence of the Umayyad Period (661-750) ……………………..…….125 4. Archaeological Evidence of the Abbasid Period (750-1258) ………..………………….129 vi Chapter 6: A Comparative Analytical Study of the Key Architectural Elements in al-Juhfa ...... 134 1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….…135 2. Comparative Analytical Study ……………………………………………….…………138 Dwellings …………………………………………………………………………. 138 Fortifications ………………………………………………………………………144 Water Supply ……………………………………………...…….…………………158 Building Materials ………………………….……………………………….……..165 Chapter 7: An Analytical Study of the Archaeological Finds in al-Juhfa ……......…..……...…..169 1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….170 2. Archaeological Finds of the Surface Survey and the Excavations ……….……..………173 Pottery ………………………..……………………………………………………173 Glass ……………………………………………….………………………………187 Worked Stone ……………..………………………….……………………………191 Metal Pieces ……………………………………………………………………….194 Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………….………198 Bibliography …………………………...………………………………………….……………209 Appendix ……………………………………………………………………………………… 221 1. Glossary of Arabic Words and Terms …...………………………………………..…… 222 2. Forms …………………………………………………….……………………………. 224 3. Tables …………………………………………………………………………………. 228 4. Maps …………………………………………………………….…………………….. 240 5. Figures …………………………………………………………...……………………. 246 6. Plates ………………………………………………………………………………….. 285 vii List of Forms Form 1: Information registration form during the field survey ………...………………...…….. 225 Form 2: Daily record of archaeological excavations works ……………………………...…….. 226 Form 3: Registration card of finds during the excavations …………………………..………… 227 viii List of Tables Table 1: The transformation of the five major Mawāqīt …………………………….…………. 229 Table 2: The Mawāqīt used by pilgrims during their journey to the Hajj ………...……………. 230 Table 3-4: Pottery finds during the survey …………………………………………..………… 231 Table 5-7: Pottery finds during the excavation …………………………………...……………. 233 Table 8: Glass Finds during the survey ………………………………………………………… 236