City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 9-2016 Engagement and Resistance: African Americans, Saudi Arabia and Islamic Transnationalisms, 1975 to 2000 Jeffrey Diamant The Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/1624 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] ENGAGEMENT AND RESISTANCE: AFRICAN AMERICANS, SAUDI ARABIA AND ISLAMIC TRANSNATIONALISMS, 1975 TO 2000 by JEFF DIAMANT A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2016 ©2016 JEFF DIAMANT All Rights Reserved ii Engagement and Resistance: African Americans, Saudi Arabia and Islamic Transnationalisms, 1975 to 2000 by Jeff Diamant This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in History in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ___________________ Clarence Taylor Date Chair of Examining Committee ___________________ Helena Rosenblatt Date Executive Officer Supervisory Committee: Beth Baron Edward E. Curtis IV Simon Davis Bernard Haykel THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii ABSTRACT Engagement and Resistance: African Americans, Saudi Arabia and Islamic Transnationalisms, 1975 to 2000 by Jeff Diamant Advisor: Clarence Taylor Since the 1960s, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has financed missionary efforts to Muslims around the world, attempting to spread a Salafi form of Islam that professes strict adherence to Islamic sacred scripture. The effects of this transnational proselytization have depended on numerous factors in “host countries.” This project explores the various impacts of Saudi transnational religious influence in the United States among African-Americans. By relying on previously unused documentary sources and fresh oral histories, it shows how Saudi “soft power” attempted to effect change in religious practices of African-American Muslims from 1975 through 2000. It provides the most detailed examination and interpretation yet of Wallace Mohammed’s groundbreaking tenure as leader of the Nation of Islam and its successor groups after 1975, showing how he led his organization to variously accept and resist Saudi efforts to dictate the terms of Islam in America to African-Americans, while he oversaw a general acceptance of Sunni Islam. This project also describes and interprets the acceptance of quietist Salafi religious ideals and practices by thousands of African-Americans, in a Salafi movement associated with African-American graduates of Saudi Islamic universities. iv Table of Contents List of figures…………………………………………………………………………….vii Notice on transliteration………………………………………………………………....viii Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………..ix Preface…………………………………………………………………………………...xii Introduction: New Islamic Transnationalisms…...………………………………..…..1 Religious Authority and Transnationalism………………………………………..5 The Universal and the Particular……………………………………………….....9 The Saudis and “Soft Power”……………………………………………………14 Issues of Masculinity, Femininity and Marriage………………………………...17 Sources and Methodology……………………………………………………….29 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….30 Chapter 1: A New Transnationalism for African American Muslims . …………. .31 Transcending National Borders…………………………………………………..34 African Americans, Counter-citizenship and Geopolitics………………………..40 African Americans and Post-colonialism…………………………………………43 Wallace Mohammed and U.S. Society…………………………………………...49 U.S. and the Saudis: A Cold War Alliance……………………………………….59 African American Salafis…………………………………………………………66 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...69 Chapter 2: The Transition of 1975……………………………………………………...72 Changes in the Works……………………………………………………………..75 Day of the Transition……………………………………………………………...83 Ministers’ Kits: New Look at the Transition…………………………………...…90 Speaking of Change…………………………………………………………….....92 Toward Arabic and Sunnism……………………………………………………....98 Relationships with Orthodox Muslims……………………………………………103 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...111 v Chapter 3: Wallace Mohammed and the Saudis, 1975 to 1995…………………….…113 Money and Foreign-Policy Agendas………………………………………………116 Political Agendas…………………………………………………………………..120 Saudi Funded Trainings and Imams……………………………………………….123 Foreign Imams-in-Residence……………………………………………………....130 Marriage, Dress and Family…………………………………………………….......135 Conflict with Immigrant Muslims..............................................................................137 Internal tensions……………………………………………………………………..144 Visits in the 1990s…………………………………………………………………...147 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….…..158 Chapter 4: The Muslim World League in a “Muslim-Minority Land”….……………..161 The Muslim World League Expands in the United States……………….………… 169 Muslim Minorities……………………………………………………….…………..174 The MWL and Muslim Minorities……………………………………….………….178 Changes in the American Muslim Population………………………….……………181 Approaches in Muslim-Minority and Muslim-Majority Lands……….……………..188 The “First Islamic Conference of North America”.………………………………….192 How it worked………………………………………………………………………..197 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………202 Chapter 5: A Salafi Movement and African American Muslims………………………...205 Discourse Review on Salafism…...………………………………………..…………209 Saudi Universities and African American Salafis…………………………..………..216 “Like a small Mecca”………………………………………………………..……….221 Salafi vs. Salafi……………………………………………………………..………...228 Gender and Polygamy………………………………………………………..……….235 Saudi Arabia, the “Saudi-ization” Question, and “Deculturation”………….………..238 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….……....244 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………....246 Bibliography…………………………………………………… …………………………...257 vi List of Figures 1. Page from Muslim Journal, April 12, 1990. From Research and Reference Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. vii Note on Transliteration When transliterating Arabic words, I have relied on the system of the International Journal of Middle East Studies. One exception is that plurals for Arabic words have been given a slightly simplified English-style plural (hadiths, masjids, madhhabs, shaykhs), rather than their actual Arabic plural (ahadith, masajid, madhahab, shuyukh.) Another exception is that, on second and additional references of each chapter, I have removed the al- from last names that, in Arabic, are preceded by it (Shakyh Nasir al-Din al-Albani and Shaykh Rabi al-Madkhali become Shaykh Albani and Shaykh Madkhali after the first reference in each chapter). viii Acknowledgements Not a day passes without multiple reminders that other people helped me do this. Back in 2008, my loving wife was unflinchingly and enthusiastically supportive, in every way possible, when the possibility arose I would “transition” from my journalism career to academia. She has remained the same wonderful life partner that I have long known her to be, not to mention an encouraging, sharp and constructively critical editor. My parents have also been supportive in every way possible, and their confidence in my mid-career switch was extremely helpful in solidifying my own. Meanwhile, the professors who helped me at the CUNY Graduate Center and elsewhere all lived up to their excellent reputations for brilliance and depth and breadth of expertise in their various fields. Clarence Taylor, my adviser, enthusiastically supported this project from the start, providing expert advice at each step and serving as a sage guide through the entire process. He consistently dazzled me with his thorough knowledge of the historiography. Beth Baron challenged me at every step to examine problematic preconceptions I hadn’t even realized I had, while wisely urging me to widen my range of sources. Her critiques helped me shape this project in essential ways. Simon Davis generously lent his encouragement ix and a holistic outlook on my subject matter, one that very impressively merged high levels of expertise in the areas of diplomatic history, Middle Eastern affairs and African-American history. Edward E. Curtis IV graciously lent his critical expertise from six hundred miles away in Indiana, helping to both expand and sharpen my focus while never letting my confidence flag. Bernard Haykel generously offered his advice from Princeton, admitting me into his graduate courses on Saudi history and Salafism and offering valuable guidance along the way. Martin Burke, K.C. Johnson, Kathleen McCarthy and Andrew Robertson, who taught my first-year seminars at the CUNY Graduate Center, lent me their ears and their minds at critical junctures. My fellow fellows at the Scholars-in-Residence program of the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture – Caree Banton, Andrianna Campbell, Sylvia Chan-Malik, Tanisha Ford, Kaiama Glover, Tsitsi Jaji, Soyica Roberts, Sonia Sanchez, C. Riley Snorton, Nicole Wright, and our incredible leader Farah Jasmine Griffin – accepted me fully as a junior member. The Committee for the Study of Religion at CUNY, led by Bryan Turner and his administrator Lydia Wilson, proved a helpful presence throughout my graduate study, as did Anny Bakalian of the Middle East and Middle Eastern American Center