CONSERVATION OF MANGROVE FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES A TRAINING MANUAL EDITED BY SANJAY V. DESHMUKH AND V. BALAJI M.S. SWAMINATHAN RESEARCH FOUNDATION CENTRE FOR RESEARCH ON SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT (CRSARD), MADRAS, INDIA INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANISATION YOKOHAMA, JAPAN 1994 INTERNATIONAL TECHNICAL STEERING COMMITTEE Prof. M.S. Swaminathan Chairman Dr. David S. Cassells ITTO, Japan Dr. Gary M. Burniske ITTO, Japan Mr. R. Rajamani, lAS Secretary Ministry of Environmentand Forests Government of India Representative Government of Japan Mr. Zheng Dezhang China Representative Government of Indonesia Dr. Mohamed bin Haji Ismail Malaysia Dr. H.G. Palis The Philippines Dr. K.W. Sorensen UNESCO Mr. Yoshiyasu Hirayama UNEP Dr. V. Balaji Member Secretary ORGANISING COMMITTEE Chairman Prof. M.S. Swaminathan Course Director Prof. A.N. Rao Course Adviser Dr. Sanjay Deshmukh Member Dr. V. Balaji Secretariat Ms. Stella Saleth Ms. Solai Annamalai CITATION Sanjay Deshmukh and V. Balaji (Ed.s). Conservationof MangroveForest Genetic Resources : A TrainingManual. JTTO-CRSARD Project, M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation, Madras, India, 1994. ©CRSARD 94 Centre for Research on Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development,Madras, India COVER Mangroves at Krusadai island, in the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India (Photo : Dr. Sanjay Deshmukh) COVER DESIGN AND GRAPHICS M/s. Fifth Estate Communications, Pvt. Ltd., Madras M/s. Sanka Graphics Pvt. Ltd., Madras TYPESETTING AND PRINTING M/s. SBS Laser Words Pvt. Ltd., Madras; M/s. Adyar Students Xerox Pvt. Ltd., Madras M/s. Sudarshan Graphics Pvt. Ltd., Madras; M/s. Reliance Printers Pvt. Ltd., Madras CONTENTS Page No. PREFACE ix M.S. Swaminathan CONTRIBUTORS xi I. INTRODUCTION 1-10 Human Resources Developmentfor the Conservation of Mangroves 1 Sanjay Deshmukh and A.N. Rao The ITTO and Mangroves 7 David S. Cassells Inaugural Address 9 T.S. Sadasivan II. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION : OVERVIEW 13-27 Biological Diversity and Global Food Security 13 M.S. Swaminathan In situ Conservation of Biological Diversity: Important Action Points 23 T.N. Khoshoo III. ISSUES IN ECOLOGICAL SECURITY 31-55 Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Interactions 31 Barry F. Clough Climatic Impacts on Mangrove Ecosystems 39 Barry F. Clough Biological Investigationto Understand and Mitigate the Effects of Global Change and Sea Level Rise 45 S.N. Dwivedi IV. ISSUES IN GENETIC CONSERVATION 59-84 Gene and Genetic Conservation 59 V. Arunachalam Understanding Genetic Diversity in Mangroves 65 Sakti Jana and Sanjay Deshmukh Conservationof Plant Genetic Resources 71 S. Kedharnath iv Contents Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources 77 C.S. Venkatesh V. INVENTORY OF GENETIC RESOURCES : CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF 87-95 CONSERVATION AREAS Identifying Criteria and Evaluation Methods for Forest Areas for Establishmentof Mangrove Genetic Resources Centres 87 M.S. Swaminathan and Sanjay Deshmukh VI. BIOSYSFEMATICS 99-131 Plants Inhabiting Mangrove Habitats 99 A.N. Rao and Sanjay Deshmukh Ecology of Mangroves 111 A.N. Rao Mangroves : Ecology and Special Features 117 L.P. Mall Mangroves : Morphology, Anatomy and Reproduction 121 A.N. Rao Economic Importance of Mangroves 129 A.N. Rao VII. HABITAT STUDIES 135-456 Mangrovesof Bay Islands 135 A.K. Bandyopadhyay Systematic Notes on Mangrovesof Andaman and Nicobar Islands 145 H.S. Debnath Characteristics of Mangrove Soils of Bay Islands 149 A.D. Mongia VIII. LIFE CYCLES AND POPULATION DYNAMICS 159-199 Population Dynamics in Mangroves 159 S.B. Chaphekar Plant ReproductiveBiology 165 I.A.U.N. Gunetilleke and Savitri Gunetilleke The Physiologyof Mangroves 179 S.M. Karmarkar The Physiologyof Salt Tolerance 181 S.M. Karmarkar Contents v Mangroves : Nitrogen Metabolism and Senescence 193 D.V. Amonkar Aspects of Productivity of Mangroves 197 Sayeeda Wafar IX. INVENTORY OF MANGROVE FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES 203-250 Applicationof Remote Sensing in the Study of MangroveEcosystems 203 Shailesh Nayak Genetic Diversity : Concepts and Measurements 221 V. Arunachalam Methods of Studying Mangrove Vegetation 225 Sanjay Deshmukh Sampling Designs for Surveys, Resource Assessment and Forest Inventories 237 FAO Forestry Paper Methods of Germplasm Sampling 245 B.R. Murty X. MANGROVES : ASSOCIATED FLORA AND FAUNA 253-299 Benthic Fauna of Mangrove Environment 253 A.H. Parulekar Micro-invertebrate Benthic Fauna of Pichavaram Mangroves 257 K. Balasubrahmanyan RemunerativeRole of Foraminiferain Coastal Ecosystem 261 Rajiv Nigam Microbially Mediated Detrital Food Web: The Link Between Mangrovesand Coastal Aquatic Animal Communities 263 S. Raghu Kumar Higher Marine Fungi from Mangroves (Manglicolous Fungi) 271 S. Chinna Raj Algae Associated with Mangroves 279 V.K. Dhargalkar Seaweeds of the Mangrove and Associated Ecosystems 283 L. Kannan MangroveFauna of Sunderbans : Ecological Features and Utilisation 287 P.V. Dehadrai Fauna of Mangrovesand Its Management 295 Ajai Saxena vi Contents XI. ECO-RESTORATION : METHODSAND APPLICATION 303-335 Propagation of Mangroves: Some Considerations 303 K. Kathiresan Regeneration of Mangroves 307 P.V. Savant Developmentof an Intertidal MangroveNursery and Afforestation Techniques 311 Arvind G. Untawale Mangroves and Their Rehabilitation for Conservation 317 Subrata Maity Rehabilitating Mangroves in Maharashtra 321 Arvind G. Raddi Eco-restoration of Mangroves: A Case Study 327 Sanjay Deshmukh XII. CLASSIFICATION 339—378 Methods of Classification Based on Genetic Divergence 339 V. Arunachalam Analysis of Diversity in Mangroves Using Data Collected by Trainees 347 V. Arunachalam Utilisation of Genetic Divergence 351 V. Arunachalam Data Base Developmentfor Coastal Ecosystems: A Model 357 M.P. Tapaswi Biotechnological Studies in Mangroves 369 Usha Mukundan Biotechnological Methods to Improve Biodiversity 375 P. Balakrishna XIII. ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE UTILISATION 381-402 Aquaculturein MangroveEnvironment 381 Arun H. Parulekar Utilising Mangrove Swamps for Aquaculture 383 R. Paul Raj Penaeid Prawns and Their Culture in Mangrove Areas 393 C.T. Achuthankutty Aquaculture and Sustainable Utilisation of Mangrove Forests 397 K. Alagarswami Contents yjj XIV. ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT OF MANGROVE 405-468 GENETIC RESOURCES MangroveForest Genetic Resources : Strategy for Conservation and Management 405 Sanjay Deshmukh Clonal Forestry: A New Strategy for Obtaining Increased Yield 417 S. Kedharnath Conservation and Management of Mangrovesin Andaman and Nicobar Islands 423 B.P. Sinha Sustainable Management of Coastal Ecosystems : The Case of MangroveResources 427 R. Maria Saleth Sustainable Livelihood Security Index : An OperationalApproach 443 R. Maria Saleth Forest Tree Improvementin The Tropics : Challenges and Prospects 451 C.S. Venkatesh Joint Forest Management Initiatives for MaintainingBiodiversity 459 A.V.R.G. Krishna Murthy Critical Issues in The Implementationof The Convention on Biological Diversity 465 Jeffrey A. McNeely CHARTER FOR MANGROVE 5 469 INTERNATIONAL TRAINERS' TRAINING PROGRAMME : SCHEDULE 473 DIRECTORY OF CANDIDATES 479 GUEST FACULTY 483 PREFACE During my stay in the Philippines from 1982—88 as Director General of the International Rice Research Institute, I was struck by the beauty and utility of mangrove forests in many of the islands of that country. It was then I took a fascination for the mangrove ecosystems. Later, I witnessedwith sorrow fairly rapid damage to several of these valuable ecosystems as a result of the expansion of coastal aquaculture and urbanisation. Quite often coastal developmentprojects, including aquaculture, were environmentallydestructive and socially disruptive. I then felt that concerted action to save the remaining mangrove forests should be initiated. On my return to India, I observed that the fate of manymangrove forest areas was in grave jeopardy as a result of anthropogenicpressures. Therefore, the highest priority was given in the research and training agenda of the Centre for Research on Sustainable Agriculturaland Rural Development(CRSARD) established in Madras in 1990 to the conservation and sustainable management of mangrove forest areas. In 1990, I was elected the first President of the International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) with its headquarters at Okinawa, Japan and I took this opportunity to suggest the preparation of a Charter for Mangroves on the model of the World Charter for Nature adopted by the United Nations in 1982. ISME prepared such a Charter under the guidance of Dr. Cohn Field and this Charter finds a place in this publication. In September 1989, I was invited to delivera lectureby the Government of Japan on the potential problems which may arise from changes in sea level due to global warming. I then pleaded for special attention to the conservation of genetic diversity in mangrove species since it may be possible to transfer genes for tolerance to sea water intrusion from them to other plants through recombinantDNA technology. The late Dr. Saburo Okita, who was the Chairman of the Tokyo Conference, recommended that the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) located at Yokohama should initiate work on the conservation of mangrove ecosystems. Fortunately, immediately after this meeting, Dr. B.C.Y. Freezailah, Executive Director, ITTO and I happened to travel in the same plane to New Delhi. I then mentioned to Dr. Freezailahthat we would like to prepare a proposal for assemblingmangrove experts from different parts of the Worldto prepare a proposal for saving for posterity a representative