The Birth of Psychedelic Literature: Drug Writing and the rise of LSD Therapy 1954 – 1964 Submitted by Robert John Dickins, to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Master of Philosophy in English, September, 2012. This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. (Signature) ……………………… ……………………………………………………… 1 Abstract This thesis examines hallucinogen drug literature published between 1954-1964 in Britain and North America. By arguing that these texts are medically and culturally contingent to psychiatric research that was being undertaken with various hallucinogens during the period, including Lysergic acid diethylamide and mescaline, via the development of three psychiatric models—the psycholytic, psychotomimetic and psychedelic—it seeks to establish the relationship between psychiatric practice and the form and content of the texts. Furthermore, it examines an inter-textual dialogue concerning the medical, spiritual and philosophical value of these drugs, which has a direct effect on the development of the aforementioned psychiatric research models. In doing so, this thesis also traces the historical popularization of these drugs as they left the clinical setting and entered in to wider society, as propagated by the literature. Broadly speaking, through these analyses, it establishes the primary texts as representing a minor literary movement—Psychedelic literature—through the emergence of a psychospiritual narrative. 2 Contents 1.0 INTRODUCTION 4 1.1 The value of Lysergic acid diethylamide 5 1.2 Psycholytic texts 7 1.3 Psychotomimetic texts 9 1.4 Psychedelic texts 12 1.5 Drugs and writing 17 2.0 THE PSYCHOLYTIC TERRITORY 22 2.1 Psychodynamic Roots 24 2.2 Development of Psycholytic Therapy 29 2.3 My Self and I 32 2.4 Freudian & Jungian Literary Motifs 34 2.5 Psycholytic Observations 38 2.6 Psycholytic Politics 41 3.0 THE PSYCHOTOMIMETIC TERRITORY 44 3.1 The Splintered Man 46 3.2 Mescaline Research and Literature 49 3.3 The Osmond-Huxley Connection 52 3.4 A Bundle of Perceptions 55 3.5 Literary responses to Huxley 70 4.0 THE PSYCHEDELIC TERRITORY 80 4.1 The Discovery of God 82 4.2 Neurotheology 90 4.3 Psychedelic Orientalism 101 5.0 CONCLUSION 122 6.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY 126 3 1.0 INTRODUCTION Between 1954 - 1964 a number of books were published that described psychoactive drug experiences with hallucinogens under the auspices of, or directly influenced by, psychiatry: The Doors of Perception (1954), Heaven and Hell (1956) and Island (1962) by Aldous Huxley; A Drug Taker’s Notes (1957) by Richard Heron Ward; Exploring Inner Space (1961) by Jane Dunlap; Myself and I (1962) by Constance A. Newland; The Joyous Cosmology (1962) by Alan Watts; The Discovery of Love (1963) by Malden Grange Bishop; and The Psychedelic Experience (1964) by Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert. Collectively, these texts will be referred to as psychedelic literature and their psychiatrically- mediated dialogue, this thesis argues, reveals them to be a minor medico-cultural and literary movement. By contextualising the primary texts according to the development of three psychiatric research/therapy models—the psycholytic, psychotomimetic and psychedelic—this thesis will demonstrate a dynamic, interpenetrative relationship between the books and the theoretical and methodological approaches of these psychiatric and psychoanalytic practices, while also elucidating a dialogue that occurred between the books themselves. Firstly, this will ground the texts within a socio-historical context that is used to identify the texts as a body of work—psychedelic literature—and secondly, the thesis will examine how the literature helped transform the practises themselves; thus demonstrating a cultural- contingency between the practice of hallucinogen research and drug literature from the same period. Broadly speaking then, this thesis is a medico-cultural and literary history of hallucinogen research, occurring in both Britain and North America, which aims at grounding the primary texts within the same cultural paradigm, arguing for the existence of a minor literary movement; psychedelic literature. The primary texts will now be briefly introduced in regard to the proliferation of hallucinogen research during the 1950s and early 1960s; this in order to socially and historically contextualise them. It is then necessary, in 1.4, to position the argument of this thesis within the wider critical tradition of drug literature. This will be achieved by recounting the history of drug writing as a critical discipline, along with the various methodological approaches that have been employed, and will also elucidate the context in which the primary texts of this thesis have hitherto been understood. 4 1.1 Valuating Lysergic Acid Diethylamide In 1938, working for the Pharmaceutical-Chemical Research Laboratories of Sandoz AG in Basel, Switzerland, Albert Hofmann (1906-2008) was working on synthesizing alkaloids from ergot in the hope of finding a new analeptic (Stevens 1993; Davenport-Hines 2001; Feilding 2008). Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) was the twenty-fifth compound in the series but was shelved, after animal testing, as unremarkable. Then five years later, on April 16, 1943, while working on “a hunch”, Hofmann resynthesized LSD and accidently consumed a small amount through his skin (Stevens 1993). Thinking he felt the onset of a cold he took the rest of the day off and returned home. The following is a translation of Hofmann’s account of his subsequent experience: At home I lay down and sank into a not unpleasant, inebriated-like condition, characterised by extremely heightened fantasy. In low-light conditions with closed eyes (I found the daylight unpleasantly glaring), uninterrupted and fantastic images of extreme plasticity with an intense, kaleidoscope-like play of colours, came upon me (Feilding 2008, 19). Three days after Hofmann’s first experience he re-tested LSD on himself. He began to feel “dizziness, anxiety, sensory disruption, palsy, nervous laughter” (Feilding 2008, 20) and decided to bicycle home. Unlike his first experience, he found his second harrowing: “All the strength of my will to prevent the disintegration of the outer world and the dissolution of my own ego seemed useless. A demon had entered me and taken possession of my body, my senses and my soul” (Fielding 2008, 21). In consequence of Hofmann’s experience and subsequent testing by Sandoz, LSD was categorized as being in the hallucinogen class of psychoactive drugs. Having carried out preliminary research, Sandoz proceeded to market the drug as Delysid, with two possible values in human research; as a psychotomimetic and as an aid to psychotherapy (Stevens 1993; Roberts 2008). A period of widespread research ensued in both Europe and North America, which lasted until the 1960s when public fears over the drug led to its scheduling, and research came to an end. However, before this occurred, psychiatrists and psychoanalysts attempted to firstly verify Sandoz’s conclusions and, secondly, build upon and develop certain theories of the mind in order to explain the efficacy of the drug. These are the psycholytic, 5 psychotomimetic and psychedelic and will be investigated in chapters 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 respectively. 6 1.2 Psycholytic Texts The first possible value that Sandoz ascribed LSD was as an aid to psychotherapy, a discipline that had been developing since the turn of the twentieth century but that had not hitherto been employed with hallucinogens. Psychoanalysis was first developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and employs ‘the talking cure’ and Freud’s own theory of the unconscious (Cohen 2011). Carl Jung (1875-1961), a pupil of Freud who broke away to develop analytical psychotherapy, developed his own theory of the unconscious. Interestingly, Jung was still alive while early LSD research was conducted but although he commented privately on LSD, he himself did not conduct any research (Sandison 1997, 71). Freud and Jung, and how their methods interacted with LSD research, will be examined more closely in chapter 2.0. The imagery the hallucinogen caused in patient’s perceptions was thought by Sandoz to be the surfacing of unconscious repressed memory and it was also believed to diminish a patient’s resistance to therapy and therefore act as an aid to the talking cure (Roberts 2008, 16; Melechi 1997, 26). Both Freud and Jung’s theories and methods play an important role in the development of what became known as psycholytic therapy and, to a certain extent, played an increasingly important role in psychedelic therapy toward the end of this research period, as the two methods interpenetrated one another within the territory of psychedelic literature. In November 1952, psychiatrist Dr. Ronald Sandison (1916-2010) became the first person on record to bring LSD into Britain, which was sourced from Sandoz, and stemmed from a meeting two months before with Albert Hofmann (Roberts 2008). Sandison pioneered the use of LSD in psychotherapy in Britain at Powick Hospital between 1952-1964, treating thousands of patients for various neurosis and depression (Sandison 1997; Roberts 2008). In 1954 he published his first clinical results, and also the first ever British article on LSD, in the Journal of Mental Science: The Therapeutic Value of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide in Mental Illness (Sandison 1954). The term psycholytic – meaning soul dissolving – was later coined by Sandison to describe the therapy he developed (Sandison 1997; Grof 2010). The distinguishing marker of this therapy was the utilisation of Freudian and Jungian models of analysis alongside a series of small dose LSD sessions (typically 75-200 micrograms) in the treatment of neurosis and for accessing repressed memory (Grof 2010).