INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely afreet reproductioiL In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each orignal is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order UMI A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor MI 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 AMBIGUITY AND DECEPTION IN THE COVERT TEXTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN THEATRE: 1976-1996 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Allan John Munro, M.A., H.D.E. ***** The Ohio State University 1997 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Stratos E. Constantinidis, Adviser Professor Lupenga Mphande Adviser Professor Alan Woods Department of Theatre UMI Number: 9813319 UMI Microform 9813319 Copyright 1998, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 ABSTRACT This dissertation investigates the phenomenon of theatre committed to social, political and economic change in an oppressive environment. The terrain covered is the theatre created in South Africa between 1976 and 1996. The investigation is positioned around the theoretical writings of James C. Scott and his concepts of “onstage” and “offstage” transcripts of both oppressor and oppressed, as well as the writings on hybridity by Temple Hauptfleisch, and the “collective scribe” by Ian Steadman. The argument is made that the discourse developed in offstage positions is performed in onstage and public positions to legitimize the form and content of that which takes place in those offstage (oppressed) spaces. As such, all discourse is theatrical, as it involves elements of role-play. The South African institution of theimbongi, or praise-poet, is used as a tracer element throughout the areas of investigation. The imbongi is seen as the interlocutor between various power positions, who, through the effective use of presentation styles and techniques, and Vail and White’s concept of “poetic licensing,” is legitimized both by the oppressor and the oppressed as a negotiator. The dissertation investigates three areas. Firstly it considers the use of the ii theatrical by Trade Union movement to mobilize and to create solidarity. Drawing on the work of Ari Sitas, and the Durban workers Cultural Local, I conclude that the theatrical leads to the monolithic in the onstage spaces and transcripts. Secondly, this work analyzes two Theatre for Development projects (The Marotholi Travelling Theatre, and the DramAidE Programme), following their use of Augusto Boal’s theories on the Theatre of the Oppressed. I conclude that the theatrical here leads to new coping devises for the oppressed, as opposed to confrontation and change. Finally, this work considers Mbongeni Ngema’s early plays fWoza Albert!. AsinamaliL Sarafina! and Township Fever!"). I demonstrate how the offetage transcript is presented (in the first two works) to the oppressor, as a system of a resistance, but in the last two works, the offstage discourses are offered in a commodified form, “betraying” the privilege and legitimation of group belonging. Ill This work is dedicated to God, my wife and child and to my parents IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to acknowledge the encouragement, support and effort that my adviser, Professor Stratos Constantinidis, put into the delivery of this dissertation. He clarity of vision and attention to detail not only directed my thinking, but, like a good teacher, he has also shown me the importance of clarity of statement and progression argumentof I wish also to thank my readers. Professor Lupenga Mphande, in whose company I spent many a valuable hour thrashing through the problems of performance and the structures of the imbongi in a very troubled South African society, and Professor Alan Woods, whose enthusiasm during the preparation period was infectious and whose insightful readings were extremely helpful. Of course, the shortfalls in the arguments presented in this document, are all my own. Finally I wish publically to confirm the sacrifices undergone, and the unwavering support, abiding trust and deep love shown to me during the past number of years by my wife Marth, and my son Andrew, as well as the caring of all my parents. God has blessed me with a wonderfiil close and extended family. VTTA December 3, 1953 ........................... Bom — Louis Trichardt, South Africa 197 5 .................................................B.A. University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg. 197 6 .................................................H.D.E. University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg. 197 7................................................B.A. Hons. University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg. 1978 - 1982 ..................................... Teacher, High School for Boys, Potchefstroom. 1982 - 1990..................................... Theatre Technologist, Department of Theatre Potchefstroom University for CHE 1990 - 1994..................................... Graduate Teaching Assistant The Ohio State University. 1993................................................M.A. the Ohio State University 1995 - present.................................. Lecturer Department of English Language and Literature Potchefstroom University for CHE FIELDS OF STUDY Major field: Theatre. VI TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ................................................................................................................................. ü Dedication............................................................................................................................ iv Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................v Vita........................................................................................................................................vi Chapters: 1. Introduction.................................................................................................................1 1.1 Basic Thesis and Historical Overview ........................................................1 1.2 South African Theatre: 1976-1990.............................................................. 6 1.3 Statement of Purpose and Definitions.......................................................18 2 Ambiguity of Overt and Covert Texts ................................................................... 32 2.1 Oppressors and Oppressed ..........................................................................36 2.2 Fallacies of Hegemony and Interpellation..................................................45 2.2.1 The Onstage Discourse of the Oppressor................................................54 2.2.2 The Offstage Discourse of the Oppressor................................................ 56 2.2.3 The Onstage Discourse of the Oppressed................................................ 57 2.2.4 The Offstage Discourse of the Oppressed................................................ 61 3. Ambiguity and Confrontation as Strategies........................................................... 87 3.1 Governments and the Development of Trade Unions...............................87 3.2 The People and the Development of Trade Unions.................................93 3.3 Ari Sitas and the African Perspective ...................................................... 105 3.4 The Worker/Actor and the Enactment of the Praise-Poets.................. 113 3.5 The Imbongi and the Four Traditions.................................................... 124 3.6 The Workers' Own Representations.........................................................130 vii 4. The Ambiguities of Nation Building and Theatre for Development Projects... 164 4.1 Augusto Boal: Theatre of the Oppressed and Theatre for Development. 170 4.2 Two Case Histories..................................................................................191 4.2.1 Zakes Mda and the Marotholi Travelling Theatre ................................ 192 4.2.2 The DramAidE Programme in Kwazulu-Natal..................................... 220 5. Ambiguity as Represented by Four Popular Plays ..............................................233 5.1 Woza Albert!...........................................................................................239