00174 NKRUMABL'S IMAGE PATTERN AND GHANAIAN FOREIGN POLICE - 1957-1966 by P.. Kiven Tunteng Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Ottawa in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts* Department of Political Sciences,. University of Ottawa* Ottawa.. .<&*tiASIeL/o» September 1970. UMI Number: EC55916 INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI® UMI Microform EC55916 Copyright 2011 by ProQuest LLC All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE INTRODUCTION: The Concept of Elite Images 1 Chapter I THE POLITICAL SYSTEM 13 Background and Overview: 1956-1966 Structure of Government and Constitutional Change: 1957-1966 The Role of the Party in the Political System Party and Leader: The Role of Kwame Nkrumah II FACTORS SHAPING NKRUMAH*S FOREIGN POLICY IMAGES. 65 A.Political System and Foreign Policy Process Role of Governmental structures and Processes Role of Advisors: Governmental and Non-Governmental B.Influence of other Key Factors Personal Experience Legacy of History The Role of Ideology III CONTENT OF NKRUMAH*S FOREIGN POLICY IMAGES ... 128 A.Image of Ghana's Status and Role in the Global System Perception of the Global System Perception of the Third World Perception of Policy in the Global System B.Image of Ghana's Status and Role in the Regional System Perception of the Regional System Perception of Policy in the Regional System CONCLUSION 198 APPENDIX 206 BIBLIOGRAPHY 216 PREFACE The subject of this thesis developed from a seminar in International Relations offered by Professor William Badour. The thesis was written under his guidiance and supervision and I benefited greatly from his sharp cri­ ticisms* Miss Nellimay Daniel carefully read over and typed the thesis. To her and Professor Badour# go my sincere thanks and appreciation. Without their assistance this thesis could not have been completed* However, the responsibility for content is entirely my own* INTRODUCTION THE CONCEPT OF ELITE IMAGES The purpose of this thesis is to apply the concept of elite images to an analysis of Nkrumah's foreign policy behaviour during the period (1957-1966) when he virtually dominated Ghanaian politics. Despite the impressive volume of literature on Ghanaian politics, there has as yet been no attempt to undertake a systematic study of the influence of Nkrumah's image pattern on Ghana's external behaviour. It is hoped that such an examination will bring greater clarity and understanding to bear on Nkrumah's rather complex and some­ times controversial political style. It must be emphasized at the outset of this thesis that there is no attempt to undertake a substantive analysis of Ghanaian foreign policy. The thesis is based on the premise that a qualitative analysis of Nkrumah's images may contribute to an increased understan­ ding of Ghana's foreign policy during the period under study. The importance of the approach adopted in this thesis lies in the fact that the structure of the image shapes an individual's perception of reality. The image is the "total cognitive, affective, and evaluative structure of 2. the bahaviour unit, or its internal view of itself and its universe"1 As another observer adds, the image is a kind of mental and emotional filter that allows the registering of some facts more readily than others. Thus, the image stands between man and the external world; man acts according to a perception of reality.2 The human mind is incapable of directly absorbing the complex and numerous events that constitute the totality of the real world. Admittedly, a considerable portion of events occur beyond the range of human understanding. But, even some of the events that certainly fall within our reach go unnoticed. At each moment therefore, an individual's awareness of the facts is at best, a small segment of the whole complex of occurrences in the world. The few facts that the individual may note, are then mentally organized and processed in order to make them more meaningful to him. Although this "intra­ psychic processing of facts" still lacks perfect understanding, there is agreement that an organization that may be called the cognitive structure or the image mediates and orders the in­ coming facts. It is the image that one employs to make sense of the world. The image is sanity itself.3 1. Kenneth E. Boulding, "National Images and Inter­ national Systems" in International Politics and Foreign Policy, rev ed James N- Hosenau, ed., New York, The Free Press, 19o§, pi423. 2. Charles A. McClelland, Theory and the International System. New York, Macmillan Company, 1966, p.9. "" 3. Ibid., p.8. 3 In societies with fairly developed cultures and a long history, the primary sources of the images are not likely to be susceptible to easy change*. Shared attitudes and feelings exist among parents and friends and moreover, they all possess a common cognitive structure for inter-* preting and understanding their perception of reality. Consequently, it is possible to find that in societies with common cultures, the spread of similar images has If •permeated* that population*. The most important agent in the formation of national images is the family* It is during the early period of socialization that a child learns about its national attributes* Through this process,, national lm» ages are transmitted* The unceasing process that character* izes the transmission of national images warrants the suggestion that it is "a historical image" because, it extends through time, backward into a supposedly recorded or perhaps mythological past and forward into an Imagined future.* k Ibid.. p,9» However, it must be emphasized that the image is largely a product of socialization. The in­ culcation of societal values into the mind of a growing child shapes the formation of his imagery structure* To the extent that these values are uniformly internalized), the image of a grown up child will have a considerable resemblance to those of other members in his society*, In essence, this constitutes a process of sharing and giving and ensures that, the individual's store of knowledge and to be sure his personality, are products of the information passed on by other members of the society* 5 Boulding*, ££• clt.. p..42^* 4. In every nation however, the strength of the national image to a considerable extent, will be determined by the degree of national consciousness that exists among its na» tionals. A major factor that contributes to the stability and persistence of the national images is the educational system. Subjects such as history and geography are used as devices to glorify the nation at the expense of "foreign nations". The national territory is projected as the center of the world and civilization. As one observer said, The national geography is learned in great detail, and the rest of the world is in fuzzy outline; the national history is emphasized and exalted; the history of the rest of the world is neglected or eveagfalsified to the glory of the national image* Thus, the national image is developed and strength­ ened at the cost of deliberately distorting the "truth". A. nation at war finds justification for its righteousness through falsification of the national image. More often than not, experiences of wars and foreign invasions tend to provide people in states so affected with a focus for Iden­ tification and in the process, contributes to the strength­ ening of their national image* The more people share things in common, the greater 6. Ibid.. p*42*f 5. will be the extent to which they will identify with their national image. More than any other single factor, the experience of a war or the threat of a permanent enemy, plays an important role in the creation and maintenance of the national image especially in new nations,7 The fragile nature of national consciousness in the new African states is in part due to the lack of any symbol or focus for iden­ tification. The present boundaries of many of these states, for example, are products of imperial history. The efforts of the new African leaders to build a national identity often result in frustration because family cultures - which pre­ dominate - stress allegiance to the family group, tribe, with at best, only marginal references to the nation. Just as attempts to secure political legitimacy by coercion often prove futile, so too the efforts of new leaders to impose national images have only confirmed that this task is diffi­ cult. The haste with which African leaders have approached this task is motivated by their desire to be on the same level as the leaders of the established nations. Imposed images are, however, fragile because they lack deep internalization and will easily disintegrate when the de­ mand for satisfying more immediate interests arises. 7* The example of Israel in the contemporary world, will tend to confirm this view. 6. The images of decision-makers may bear little resem­ blance to those held by the populace. Nkrumah's images of Ghana's status and role in the international system, for example, conflicted with those held by other political groups in Ghana, In the case of Ghana, however, the con­ cept of elite images is more directly relevant to the analysis of foreign policy behaviour because Nkrumah's per­ ceptions played a key role in influencing the content and direction of Ghana's behaviour.