The Diamond Ordination Platform of Tongdosa Buddhist Spaces and Imagery in 18th-century Korea By Copyright 2016 Ghichul Jung Submitted to the graduate degree program in Art History and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ________________________________ Chairperson Marsha Haufler ________________________________ Maya Stiller ________________________________ Sherry Fowler ________________________________ Amy McNair ________________________________ Daniel Stevenson Date Defended: 05/09/2016 The Dissertation Committee for Ghichul Jung certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: The Diamond Ordination Platform of Tongdosa Buddhist Spaces and Imagery in 18th-century Korea ________________________________ Chairperson Marsha Haufler Date approved: 05/09/2016 ii ABSTRACT The Diamond Ordination Platform at Tongdosa is a stone structure reportedly constructed in the early seventh century by the eminent Silla monk Jajang 慈藏 (fl. 636-645). It was intended to enshrine the true-body relics of Śākyamuni Buddha that Jajang had allegedly procured from Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva on Mt. Wutai in China. The history of the Diamond Ordination Platform and the rarity of the true-body relics enshrined there are the core reasons why Tongdosa was granted the prestigious status of “the Buddha Jewel Monastery” in Korea. Of particular interest is the manner in which the title and visual form of the Diamond Ordination Platform have come to be perceived in Korean Buddhism today. Indeed, not only do the name and form of the Diamond Ordination Platform combine to evoke an awareness of the true-body relics being housed within it, but its architectural form is also perceived as validating the authenticity of these relics. The question of how this phenomenon developed has not been raised thus far by modern scholars. Scholarly neglect of this critical component in the history of the Diamond Ordination Platform can be attributed to the widely accepted assumption that the prestigious status and absolute authority of the Diamond Ordination Platform today are natural outcomes of its original founding by Jajang in the seventh century. This dissertation reconsiders historical accounts of the cultic ascendancy of the true-body relics brought to Silla by the monk Jajang as well as the construction of the Diamond Ordination Platform at Tongdosa. It argues that, in the face of challenges to the authenticity of their relics and in competition with other monasteries, the late-Joseon Tongdosa monks successfully conferred absolute authority to their Diamond Ordination Platform while maintaining active interaction with the platform to visualize its supposed, invisible power. This dissertation asserts iii that the popular perception that the title and architectural form of the Diamond Ordination Platform function together to validate the enshrined objects as true-body relics and also lends sacred authority to them was a logical result of a shift in emphasis. That shift, which acknowledged that such sanctity was granted not merely by the presence of the true-body relics themselves but was also conferred by the Diamond Ordination Platform’s status as a specially demarcated place through the ritual spaces and images consecrated in various ceremonies over the centuries. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I remember the day when I consulted Professor Marsha Haufler, my PhD adviser, regarding possible topics for my dissertation. Responding to my thought of King Jeongjo as a paragon of Confucian literatus-monarch, she pointed out that there must be a more complicated and even dark side behind his seemingly pure intellectual character. I still recall certain indefinable thoughts her comment brought to my mind at that time. My pursuits at the University of Kansas, in this sense, formed my life journey from a minimalist to a populist who aspires to understand differences and respect minorities. The intellectual energy that fueled such a change was sparked, of course, by Professor Haufler. In “Directed Reading” with Professor Haufler, I was fascinated by the idea of plural Chinas, and I came to turn my eyes to the dark side hidden by the grand narrative centering on Tang and Song China. Her passing comment about a memorial inscription of State Preceptor Wonyung at Buseoksa gave me a moment in which I came to realize how unstable a seemingly stable literary source could be. The extent to which her groundbreaking study on Ming-Qing Buddhist art influenced my PhD project is simply proved by the fact that the late Joseon Tongdosa became a subject of my dissertation. In the painstaking course of preparing and drafting my manuscript, I would have been utterly exhausted without her unfailing support and encouragement. At the final stage of editing my dissertation into a style that readers can readily access, I was most indebted to her superb editorial suggestions. Any problems that remain, nonetheless, are my own. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to her for all the support and hospitality that I received while pursuing my second career at the University of Kansas. v My perspective that frames Buddhist monasteries in terms of rituals was primarily formed during my independent studies with Professor Daniel Stevenson. It is a pleasant memory to have studied Chinese Buddhism under his guidance. He frequently pulled Buddhist texts off his shelf to introduce intriguing Buddhist concepts to me. Among them was Daoxuan’s diagram of jiechang, which turned out to be an inspirational source of my dissertation. With his good humor and encouragement, I have read many inscriptions of Buddhist monasteries in the Song period and enjoyed discussion of their historical meanings. A stack of handwritten notes Dr. Stevenson handed to me after my defense—that I am still struggling to decipher—remain as proof that intellectual inspiration from him will last in my mind for a long time. Professor Maya Stiller, who was appointed to the University of Kansas after I left Lawrence, joined my PhD project as a primary reader, for which I am thankful. The many e-mail discussions I have had with her I will recall as among the most pleasant experiences of my dissertation journey. Without her sound scholarship of Buddhism, my translations of original Buddhist terms including śarīra could not have been improved. Despite her stinging admonition, I have a logical, realistic, and academic reason that I chose the RR system for the romanization of Korean. I will keep her advice in mind, however, that a manner of romanization can affect the evaluation of scholarship related to Korean studies. Professor Amy McNair offered me a chance to broaden and deepen my knowledge of Chinese art history during my stay at the University of Kansas. When I studied the painting of Zhao Mengfu, she always listened to my odd inquires and encouraged me to proceed with my dilettante approach to Chinese painting. When I had a family emergency and had to return to California, Professor McNair read my presentation in class on my behalf. I would like to express my special thanks for her generosity. The questions that Professor Sherry Fowler raised to my vi project were as sharp and penetrating as a Japanese sword. Any academic rigor in my approach to Japanese references is indebted to her teaching me through these questions. I am also grateful to her for allowing me to present my study on Buseoksa in her undergraduate class. I do not think that my presentation went smoothly, but I am quite sure that it became an important moment in directing my attention to a study of Korean Buddhist monasteries. I would also like to offer an overdue note of appreciation to Professor Burglind Jungmann of UCLA who gave me warm encouragement in my comprehensive examination. A number of colleagues and teachers have supported me at every step of the way. When I stayed at UC Berkeley as a visiting scholar, Dr. Jaeyong Chang, librarian of the Korean Collection at the C.V. Starr East Asian Library, was especially helpful throughout my research and writing. Professor Clare You, then chair of the Center for Korean Studies, generously assisted me at various stages of my work. Professor Sunglim Kim of Dartmouth College, who was my neighbor in Berkeley and remains a good colleague, has shared her ideas and offered advice whenever needed. Emeritus Professor Sang-hae Lee of Sungkyunkwan University has been a great mentor and supporter for a long time, since the completion of my first PhD dissertation. During my research trip to Tongdosa, Professor Lee helped me to obtain cooperation from the Tongdosa Museum. I also want to offer a special note of appreciation to the late Beomha Seunim of Tongdosa, who kindly allowed me access to the museum. Dr. Yongcheol Sin of the Tongdosa Museum helped me to view and photograph a number of inscription plaques. Dr. Byeonghwa Hong, senior researcher of the Jogye Order, has willingly sent many research materials at my request. Discussions I had with Professor Bonghee Jeon of Seoul National University provided me opportunities to extend my premodern mind into the issues of modernity. vii I am deeply grateful to them all. My special thanks are reserved for my classmate, the late Professor Sanghyeon Yang, who taught me what is a poetic mind full of humor. An art history travel fund from the University of Kansas allowed me to do field research at Tongdosa. I am grateful for the excellent interlibrary loan services provided by libraries of the University of Kansas, UC Berkeley, and San Jose State University. I owe a special debt of gratitude to my families who have cared about me over the long course of my work. My mother-in-law, Hyeonsuk Choe, and my eldest sister, Hyosuk Jung, have supported and trusted me at every stage of my life with great patience. I hope that my parents in heaven are partially relieved at their son’s overdue completion.