"THE GREEK FIRE": THE GREEK WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE AND THE EMERGENCE OF AMERICAN REFORM MOVEME:~TS, 1780-1860 by Maureen Connors Santelli A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy History Director Department Chairperson Program Director Dean, College of Humanities and Social Sciences Summer Semester 2014 George Mason University Fairfax, VA • J “The Greek Fire”: The Greek War for Independence and the Emergence of American Reform Movements, 1780-1860 A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University by Maureen Connors Santelli Master of Arts George Mason University, 2008 Director: Rosemarie Zagarri, Professor Department of History Summer Semester 2014 George Mason University Fairfax, VA This work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noderivs 3.0 unported license. ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my loving and supportive husband, Steve. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the many friends, relatives, and supporters who encouraged me throughout my journey as a graduate student at George Mason University. I especially would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Rosemarie Zagarri, who has been an irreplaceable mentor throughout my graduate career, providing me with essential support and wisdom. I also would like to thank my committee members, Drs. Cynthia Kierner and Mack Holt, who provided invaluable suggestions and guidance. The many research repositories to which I travelled aided me in my research, especially The Library Company of Philadelphia and the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. In addition, I would like to thank my good friend, Jenny Reeder, who read portions of my work and was a tireless cheerleader throughout the process. And finally, I would like to thank my husband who travelled with me to many research repositories assisting me with my research. His support sustained me. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Figures................................................................................................................... vii! Abstract.............................................................................................................................. ix! Introduction......................................................................................................................... 1! Chapter One: The Classical Tradition in America and the Rise of Greek Democracy .... 17! Republicanism in Early America .................................................................................. 18! Emergence of Hellenism in America ............................................................................ 28! Classical Education in America .................................................................................... 31! American Women and the Classical Tradition ............................................................. 41! Popular Use of the Classics in the Post Revolutionary Period: Towns and Cities........ 49! Classicism in the New National Capital........................................................................ 52! Conclusion..................................................................................................................... 58! Chapter One Figures...................................................................................................... 60! Chapter Two: American Perceptions of the Ottoman Empire, 1783-1820....................... 71! American Perceptions of East and West Through Classical Sources ........................... 73! American Contact with the Ottoman Empire................................................................ 77! Middle Eastern Exoticism in America .......................................................................... 87! Fear and Suspicion of the Ottoman Empire .................................................................. 98! Americans Captives in the Ottoman Empire............................................................... 107! Conclusion................................................................................................................... 117! Chapter Two Figures................................................................................................... 119! Chapter Three: The Rise of American Philhellenism..................................................... 124! Philhellenism in Europe .............................................................................................. 125! American Philhellenism .............................................................................................. 131! The Outbreak of War................................................................................................... 137! Chapter Three Figures................................................................................................. 161! Chapter Four: American Philhellenism and Public Activism......................................... 162! v The Death of the Famous Philhellene in the Midst of Controversy and Defeat ......... 163! American Philhellenism Blossoms.............................................................................. 177! Philhellenism Merges with Benevolence .................................................................... 184! Conclusion................................................................................................................... 194! Chapter Five: Freedom at Home, Freedom Abroad: Internal Conflicts over the Support of the Greek War................................................................................................................. 197! Favorable Trade in Smyrna and the Complications of Greek Independence.............. 200! Edward Everett vs. George Bethune English.............................................................. 206! Negotiating a Trade Treaty in the Midst of the Greek War ........................................ 214! The Persistence of Popular Philhellenism................................................................... 221! Education and Evangelization..................................................................................... 226! The Military and the Acquisition of a Treaty.............................................................. 236! Conclusion................................................................................................................... 251! Chapter Six: From Philhellenism to Abolitionism and Women’s Rights....................... 254! Evolving Perceptions of Freedom Through a Turkish Lens ....................................... 256! American Liberty and Philhellenism Questioned ....................................................... 271! Greek Women and American Women’s Rights.......................................................... 287! The Greek Slave, Abolitionism, and Women’s Rights ............................................... 296! Conclusion................................................................................................................... 309! Chapter Six Figures..................................................................................................... 312! Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 316! References....................................................................................................................... 323! vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 1: Henry and Robert Burford, "The Panorama of Athens," (Boston: WW Clapp, 1837). ................................................................................................................................ 60! Figure 2. William Beachy, "Thomas Hope," oil on canvas, 1798, London: National Portrait Gallery.................................................................................................................. 61! Figure 3. Thomas Hope, Costumes of the Ancients, (London: H.G. Bohn, 1841) plate 228..................................................................................................................................... 62! Figure 4. Charles Robert Leslie, "Mrs. John Quincy Adams, oil on canvas, 1816, Washington, D.C., State Department, Diplomatic Reception Rooms. ............................. 63! Figure 5. Mathew Brady, "Dolley Madison," Daguerrotype, 1848, Library of Congress.64! Figure 6. Charles Bird King, "Portrait of Louisa Adams," oil on canvas, ca. 1821-1825, The Granger Collection, New York.................................................................................. 65! Figure 7. Thomas Sully, "Eliza Ridgely with a Harp," oil on canvas, 1818, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C...................................................................................... 66! Figure 8. Grave of Phineas Pratt, ca. 1690, Phipps Street Cemetery, Charlestown, Massachusetts, Image courtesy of the author. .................................................................. 67! Figure 9. Grave of John Hurd, ca. 1784, Granary Burial Ground, Boston, Massachusetts, Image courtesy of the author............................................................................................. 68! Figure 10. Cornelia Walter and James Smillie, “Gossler’s Monument,” Mount Auburn Illustrated in Finely Drawn Line Engravings, 1850.......................................................... 69! Figure 11. Benjamin Latrobe, "Corncob Capitals," United States Capitol, Architect