VALUES IN ANTARCTICA: DISCOURSE ANALYSES OF TWO TOPICAL ISSUES IN ANTARCTIC POLICY by Sira Engelbertz A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Antarctic Studies Gateway Antarctica, University of Canterbury May 2015 Table of contents Acknowledgment .................................................................................................................... 4 Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 5 List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... 6 List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... 8 Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................................ 9 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 12 1. Value Definitions ........................................................................................................... 14 1.1. Troubles with a definition of value ........................................................................... 14 1.2. General reflections on the value concept .................................................................. 14 1.3. Clyde Kluckhohn’s definition of value .................................................................... 15 1.4. Milton Rokeach’s definition of value ....................................................................... 18 1.5. Shalom H. Schwartz’s model of relations among basic human values .................... 21 1.6. Culture and values .................................................................................................... 26 1.6.1. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory ............................................................... 26 1.6.2. Inglehart’s theory of intergenerational value change and postmaterialism ........ 29 1.6.3. Schwartz’s cultural value theory ........................................................................ 31 1.6.4. Hofstede, Inglehart and Schwartz in comparison ............................................... 32 1.7. Defining ‘value ......................................................................................................... 36 2. Values in Context: The Environment, Human Behaviour and Policy ..................... 38 2.1. Environmental Ethics ............................................................................................... 38 2.1.1. Environmental crisis ........................................................................................... 39 2.1.2. Nature and intrinsic value ................................................................................... 40 2.1.3. Wilderness .......................................................................................................... 41 2.1.4. The aesthetic value of nature .............................................................................. 43 2.1.5. The psycho-behavioural thesis of non-anthropocentrism ................................... 43 2.2. The environment and human behaviour ................................................................... 44 2.2.1. Social and psychological implications of environmentalism ............................. 44 2.2.2. Dunlap & Van Liere’s New Ecological Paradigm ............................................. 45 2.2.3. Stern et al.’s Value-Belief-Norm theory ............................................................. 45 2.2.4. Environmental issues and behavioural change ................................................... 47 2.3. The environment and policy ..................................................................................... 48 2.3.1. Political implication of environmentalism ......................................................... 48 2.3.2. The commons management problem .................................................................. 50 2.3.3. Principles of robust governance of environmental resources ............................. 51 2.3.4. Policy-making processes .................................................................................... 53 2.3.4.1. The Institutional Analysis and Development Framework ........................... 53 2.3.4.2. The Advocacy Coalition Framework ........................................................... 55 2.4. Summary and discussion .......................................................................................... 57 3. Antarctica: A Framework Analysis ............................................................................. 60 3.1. A brief introduction to Antarctica ............................................................................ 60 3.2. The Antarctic Treaty System .................................................................................... 64 3.2.1. The governance of the Antarctica commons ...................................................... 69 3.2.2. Institutions of the ATS ....................................................................................... 70 3.2.3. Political actors within the ATS ........................................................................... 73 3.2.4. General principles for robust governance of the commons and the ATS ........... 77 3.3. Challenges to the ATS .............................................................................................. 79 3.3.1. International security .......................................................................................... 79 3.3.2. State security ....................................................................................................... 80 1 3.3.3. Regime security .................................................................................................. 80 3.3.4. Maritime security ................................................................................................ 82 3.3.5. Environmental, resource and human security ..................................................... 83 3.4. Key structural elements of the ATS ......................................................................... 86 4. Method ........................................................................................................................... 89 4.1. Research questions ................................................................................................... 89 4.2. Qualitative research approach .................................................................................. 90 4.2.1. Political discourse analysis ................................................................................. 90 4.2.2. Case studies ........................................................................................................ 93 4.3. Theoretical model ..................................................................................................... 94 4.4. Sources ...................................................................................................................... 96 4.5. List of Documents .................................................................................................... 97 4.6. Scope of investigation .............................................................................................. 97 4.7. Analysis .................................................................................................................... 98 4.7.1. ATCM Decision and background information ................................................... 98 4.7.2. Setting and staging of the ATME ....................................................................... 98 4.7.3. ATME actors ...................................................................................................... 99 4.7.4. ATME discourse ................................................................................................. 99 4.7.5. Follow up discourse at subsequent ATCMs ..................................................... 100 4.7.6. Comparison of case studies and research questions ......................................... 101 4.7.7. Limitations ........................................................................................................ 101 5. Case Study I: The Management of Ship-Borne Tourism in the Antarctic Treaty Area ..................................................................................................................................... 102 5.1. Background ............................................................................................................. 102 5.2. Setting and staging of the 2009 ATME .................................................................. 108 5.3. Actors ...................................................................................................................... 109 5.4. Discourse ................................................................................................................ 114 5.4.1. Issue profile and adverse consequences ........................................................... 115 5.4.2. Ascription of responsibilities ............................................................................ 118 5.4.3. Recommendations to the ATCM ...................................................................... 120 5.4.4. Points of conflict and coalitions ......................................................................