Evolving Female Participation in Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood Submitted by Mona Kamal Farag to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Arab and Islamic Studies In April 2013. This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ………………………………………………………….. 1 Abstract This research effort will analyze the level of female political participation within the Muslim Brotherhood (MB) before and after the January 25 revolution, and whether it has changed with the transformation of Egypt’s political climate, governing system and ruling elite. An assessment of the level of female participation within the MB and its political party will occur to determine which significant factors - such as governing regime, cultural influences, security issues - have attributed to the magnitude and level of the Muslim Sisters’ political exposure and electoral activities. More specifically, this research aims to ascertain if the Muslim Sisters experience their full rights as citizens under the leadership of the MB, and whether the MB’s willingness to nominate women is a step towards achieving equality or ‘complementarity’ within its ranks, or the process of fielding female candidates is nothing more than a “democratic façade.” Or is the issue more deeply rooted within the Egyptian, and predominantly Muslim, state and society, and its social norms and existing political structures? The historical context of post-colonial politics and the crisis of authoritarian secular politics will be reviewed as well, as it has contributed to the phenomenon of reinventing the rigid influence of tradition and religion. 2 Table of Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... 2 Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ 5 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 6 The Aim of This Research .............................................................................................................. 6 The Gender Debate in an Islamist Framework ..................................................................... 11 Brief History of the MB’s Electoral Activities ........................................................................ 13 Outline of Chapters ........................................................................................................................ 16 CHAPTER ONE Theoretical Background ..................................................................................................... 19 The Boundaries of the Terms ‘Feminism’ and ‘Islamic’ ..................................................... 20 The Evolution of the Term ‘Feminism’ in Egypt ................................................................... 32 The Appeal of Islamic Feminism ............................................................................................... 43 Islamic Feminism and Egypt: Its Relation with the State and the MB ........................... 47 The Muslim Sisters: Islamic Feminists or Plain Islamists? ............................................... 59 Al-Ghazali: Islamic Feminist or Islamist? ............................................................................... 64 CHAPTER TWO Methodology ........................................................................................................................... 71 The Components of the Triangulation Method ..................................................................... 73 Questions Asked During Interviews ........................................................................................ 80 Ethical Obligation ........................................................................................................................... 83 Challenges Faced: Bias and Limitations .................................................................................. 84 The Interviewer’s Advantages ................................................................................................... 85 CHAPTER THREE Historical Background ........................................................................................................ 88 The Birth of Female Empowerment in Egypt ........................................................................ 92 Several Women – Different Voices ......................................................................................... 100 The Muslim Brotherhood: The Oldest Islamist Movement ........................................... 103 Point of Convergence: Zaynab al-Ghazali ............................................................................ 123 PART I - THE NON-ELECTORAL MOBILIZATION OF THE MUSLIM SISTERS ................................................................................................. 138 CHAPTER FOUR The Muslim Sisters Division and their Non-electoral Participation in Egypt’s Politics and Society ............................................................................................................ 139 Al-Banna and the Muslim Sisters ............................................................................................ 139 The Extensive Arrests of MB Members and the Underground Mobilization of the Muslim Sisters ............................................................................................................................... 141 The Result of Sadat’s Forgiving Reign: The Flourishing of the MB and its Activities ...................................................................................................... 144 CHAPTER FIVE The Muslim Sisters and the 18-Day Revolution ....................................................... 156 The Beginnings of a People’s Protest: The January 25 Revolution ............................. 157 The Presence and Numbers of the MB .................................................................................. 158 The Muslim Sisters in Tahrir Square .................................................................................... 164 PART II – The Electoral Activities and Participation of the Muslim Sisters as Part of the MB and FJP ....................................................................................................... 172 3 CHAPTER SIX The Muslim Sisters’ Political and Social Activities Prior to Elections ................................................................................................................ 173 The 1994 MB Document ............................................................................................................ 175 Campaigning Activities and Methods .................................................................................... 178 A New Era, a New Party - 2011/2012 Elections ................................................................. 191 The FJP and the Muslim Sisters ............................................................................................... 203 Regime’s Actions of Deterrence .............................................................................................. 210 CHAPTER SEVEN The Muslim Sisters’ Electoral Activities During Elections .................................... 222 The 2000 Elections– Jihan el-Halafawy ................................................................................ 222 The 2005 Elections – Makarim el-Deiry ............................................................................... 225 The 2010 Elections – The NDP Wins 83 Percent of Seats ............................................... 228 The 2011/2012 The Legislative Assembly/Shura Council Elections ........................ 238 CHAPTER EIGHT The Muslim Sisters Post-Elections ................................................................................ 244 The FJP Female Cadres and the FJP’s National Nahda Project ...................................... 259 The Muslim Sisters and the Press .......................................................................................... 262 The Constituent Assembly ........................................................................................................ 269 The New Egypt: Inhospitable for Women Activists and Public Personalities? ....... 286 CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS ........................................................................................ 300 Where do the Muslim Sisters Stand in Respect to Islamic Feminism? ...................... 309 Closing Statements ...................................................................................................................... 314 APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 318 Appendix A: The Muslim Brotherhood’s Hierarchical Structure ................................ 319 Appendix B: Sample of Questions Asked During Interviews ........................................ 320 Appendix C: The Number of Female Parliamentarians from 1976 – 2005 ............. 322 Appendix D: The Muslim Sisters’ Organizational Chart ...............................................