DISSERTATION / DOCTORAL THESIS Titel der Dissertation /Title of the Doctoral Thesis „Drivers of Forced Labour in Lincolnshire Horticulture“ verfasst von / submitted by >Johanna Katharina Schenner BA MA< angestrebter akademischer Grad / in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doktorin der Philosophie (Dr.phil.) Wien, >2018< / Vienna >2018< Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt / A >796 310 122< degree programme code as it appears on the student record sheet: Dissertationsgebiet lt. Studienblatt / >Soziologie< field of study as it appears on the student record sheet: Betreut von / Supervisor: >Univ.-Prof. Dr. Jörg Flecker< I Table of Content List of Figures .....................................................................................................................VII List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... IX Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................. XI List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ XIII Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 Drivers of Forced Labour in Lincolnshire Horticulture ......................................................... 1 1 Theoretical Contexts: Locating Forced Labour as a Structural Economic Phenomenon ............................................................................................................ 2 2 Definitions of Key Terms ........................................................................................ 5 3 Outlining the Economic and Political Contexts of Forced Labour in the UK ......... 6 3.1 Labour Inspections by the GLA / GLAA and State Regulations ................... 8 4 Forced Labour and UK Law .................................................................................. 10 5 Structure of the Thesis ........................................................................................... 12 Chapter One .............................................................................................................................. 15 Literature Review ................................................................................................................ 15 1 The Nexus Between the Organisation of Global Production and LMIs ................ 17 1.1 The Rise of World Wide Supply Chains ...................................................... 17 1.2 How the Organisation of Production (in Horticulture) leads to the Prevalence of LMIs ...................................................................................... 18 1.3 From the Prominence of LMIs to Intensified Labour Exploitation ............. 20 1.4 The Role of Global Production Network Analysis in Understanding Forced Labour .............................................................................................. 21 2 International Labour Migration Dynamics, Working Mechanisms and Fraudulent Recruitment Practices by LMIs ........................................................... 25 2.1 International Labour Migration Dynamics ................................................... 25 2.2 The Working Mechanisms of LMIs ............................................................. 26 2.3 Fraudulent Recruitment Practices ................................................................ 27 II Table of Content 2.4 The Relationship of Fraudulent Recruitment Practices to Human Trafficking for the Purposes of Forced Labour ............................................ 30 3 Institutionalisation of Forced Labour .................................................................... 31 3.1 Horticulture – A Sector Based On the Exploitation of Vulnerabilities? ...... 31 3.2 Institutions Tasked to Protect Workers’ Rights ........................................... 32 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 35 Chapter Two .............................................................................................................................. 37 Towards A Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................... 37 1 Theoretical Framework .......................................................................................... 37 1.1 From Global Commodity Chains to Global Value Chains and Global Production Network Analysis ...................................................................... 37 1.2 Production Models ....................................................................................... 39 2 Applying GVC Theory and GPN Analysis to Horticulture ................................... 40 2.1 Agricultural Exceptionalism ........................................................................ 40 3 Legislative, Judiciary and Executive Governances of Value Chains .................... 42 3.1 Governance by Global Buyers ..................................................................... 42 4 An Economic Geography of Labour Market Intermediaries ................................. 44 4.1 The Staffing Industry: When Temporary Becomes Normal ........................ 44 4.2 The Dual International Character of LMIs: Operating Across Borders and an International Labour Force ............................................................... 46 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 47 Chapter Three ........................................................................................................................... 49 Research Design: Cases, Methods and Data ........................................................................ 49 1 Setting the Scene .................................................................................................... 50 1.1 For a Qualitative Case Study Approach: Using Insider/ Expert Knowledge to Explore the Nexus Between Labour Market Intermediaries and Forced Labour ............................................................... 50 1.2 Expert Interviews ......................................................................................... 53 1.3 Analysing expert interviews ......................................................................... 55 1.4 Case Selection .............................................................................................. 55 2 Data Collection ...................................................................................................... 56 2.1 Selection of Participants ............................................................................... 56 Table of Content III 2.2 Recruiting Participants ................................................................................. 58 2.3 Doing the Interviews .................................................................................... 60 2.4 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................. 61 2.5 Other Data Sources – Drawing on Literature, Policy Reports and Newspaper Articles ...................................................................................... 63 3 Data Analysis ......................................................................................................... 64 3.1 Research Questions Altered ......................................................................... 64 3.2 Interpreting Interview Data: Data Triangulation .......................................... 65 3.3 Transcription and Coding ............................................................................. 66 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 71 Chapter Four ............................................................................................................................. 73 The Organisation of UK Horticulture .................................................................................. 73 1 The Organisation of Production ............................................................................ 74 1.1 Production Systems in Horticulture ............................................................. 74 1.2 The Governance of the Fresh Fruit and Vegetables Product Supply Chain ............................................................................................................ 75 2 Employment, Recruitment and Gangmasters ........................................................ 76 2.1 The Seasonal Agricultural Workers Scheme ............................................... 85 3 Composition of the Labour Force .......................................................................... 87 3.1 The Replacement of National Workers by Foreign Workers in UK Horticulture .................................................................................................. 89 3.2 Quality Standards as a Factor in Singling Out Particular Workers .............. 90 4 The Different Dimensions and Nuances of Forced Labour ................................... 91 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 92 Chapter Five .............................................................................................................................