The Big Questions This page intentionally left blank The Big Questions A Short Introduction to Philosophy Eighthሀ Edition ROBERT C. SOLOMON University of Texas at Austin KATHLEEN M. HIGGINS University of Texas at Austin Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States The Big Questions: A Short © 2010, 2006 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning Introduction to Philosophy, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the Eighth Edition copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored or used Robert C. Solomon and in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, Kathleen M. 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Further permissions questions can be emailed to Henry [email protected] Marketing Manager: Mark Haynes Library of Congress Control Number: 2008941295 Marketing Coordinator: Josh Hendrick ISBN-13: 978-0-495-59515-1 Marketing Communications ISBN-10: 0-495-59515-2 Manager: Kim Soltero Project Manager, Editorial Wadsworth, Cengage Learning Production: Abigail Greshik 10 Davis Drive Creative Director: Rob Hugel Belmont, CA 94002-3098 Art Director: Faith Brosnan USA Print Buyer: Marcia Locke Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Permissions Editor: Nelson Education, Ltd. Timothy Sisler Production Service: Pre-PressPMG For your course and learning solutions, visit academic.cengage.com Text Designer: Rebecca Evans Photo Researcher: Rachel Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our Trousdale preferred online store www.ichapters.com Copy Editor: Pre-PressPMG Cover Designer: RHDG/ Christopher Harris Cover Image: © age footstock/ SuperStock Compositor: Pre-PressPMG Printed in Canada 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 12 11 10 09 For our nieces and nephews, Jem, Jesi, Danyal, Rachel, and Carrie Solomon, Caitlin Higgins, Jeffrey and Matthew Cook, Allison, Rachel, Daniel, Brett, and Marcus Felten, Kevin and Emily Daily This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface xv Introduction Doing Philosophy 3 Beyond Buzzwords 4 Articulation and Argument: Two Crucial Features of Philosophy 5 Concepts and Conceptual Frameworks 8 Doing Philosophy with Style 13 A Little Logic 15 Deduction 16 Induction 17 Criticizing Arguments 20 Closing Questions 24 Suggested Readings 25 Chapter 1 Philosophical Questions 27 Philosophical Questions 28 Opening Questions 29 Suggested Readings 41 Chapter 2 The Meaning of Life 43 Opening Questions 43 The Meaning of Meaning 44 Children as Meaning 46 God as Meaning 46 Afterlife as Meaning 47 No Meaning at All 47 The Meanings of Life 50 Life as a Game 51 Life as a Story 52 Life as Tragedy 52 Life as Comedy 53 Life as a Mission 54 vii viii Contents Life as Art 55 Life as an Adventure 55 Life as Disease 56 Life as Desire 57 Life as Nirvana 58 Life as Altruism 58 Life as Honor 58 Life as Learning 59 Life as Suffering 60 Life as an Investment 61 Life as Relationships 61 Closing Questions 62 Suggested Readings 63 Chapter 3 God 65 Opening Questions 65 Believing in God 66 Gods and Goddesses 69 The Traditional Western Conceptions of God 70 God as Transcendent 73 God as Immanent 73 God as Totally Immanent: Pantheism 75 God as Universal Spirit 77 God as Process 78 God as Transcendent Creator: Deism 79 God as the Unknown Object of Faith 79 God as a Moral Being 81 The Problem of Evil 81 Denial of God 82 Two Kinds of Evil 82 Denial of Evil 83 The Least of the Evils 84 The Aesthetic Totality Solution 85 The Free-Will Solution 85 Justice in the Afterlife 86 God’s “Mysterious Ways” 86 Working Out an Answer 87 Faith and Reason: Ways of Believing 87 The Cosmological Argument 89 The Argument from Design 90 The Ontological Argument 91 Rational Faith 93 Pascal’s Wager 94 Irrational Faith 95 Contents ix Religious Tolerance: Ritual, Tradition, and Spirituality 97 Doubts 100 Closing Questions 103 Suggested Readings 104 Chapter 4 The Nature of Reality 107 Opening Questions 107 The Real World 108 What Is Most Real? 110 The Reality Behind the Appearances 111 Dreams, Sensations, and Reason: What Is Real? 112 The Basis of Metaphysics 113 The First Metaphysicians 113 Thales 113 The Pre-Socratic Materialists 114 Early Nonphysical Views of Reality 117 Plato’s Forms 120 Aristotle’s Metaphysics 122 Mind and Metaphysics 123 René Descartes 124 Baruch Spinoza 127 Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz 128 Idealism 130 Teleology 136 Metaphysics and the Everyday World 139 Closing Questions 141 Suggested Readings 142 Chapter 5 The Search for Truth 145 Opening Questions 145 What Is True? 145 Two Kinds of Truth 147 Empirical Truth 147 Necessary Truth 148 Rationalism and Empiricism 151 The Presuppositions of Knowledge 153 Skepticism 155 René Descartes and the Method of Doubt 157 David Hume’s Skepticism 159 The Resolution of Skepticism: Immanuel Kant 162 Knowledge, Truth, and Science 164 x Contents The Nature of Truth 168 The Coherence Theory of Truth 170 The Pragmatic Theory of Truth 171 Rationality 172 Why Be Rational? 174 Subjective Truth and the Problem of Relativism 176 Closing Questions 181 Suggested Readings 181 Chapter 6 Self 183 Opening Questions 183 The Essential Self 184 Self as Body, Self as Consciousness 186 The Self and Its Emotions 190 The Egocentric Predicament 194 The Mind-Body Problem 196 Behaviorism 198 Identity Theory 199 Functionalism 200 The Self as a Choice 202 No Self, Many Selves 206 The Self as Social 208 Self and Relationships 211 Closing Questions 214 Suggested Readings 215 Chapter 7 Freedom 217 Opening Questions 217 Freedom and the Good Life 218 Why Is Freedom So Important to Us? 219 What Is Freedom? 222 Free Will and Determinism 228 Determinism Versus Indeterminism 230 The Role of Consciousness 234 Soft Determinism 235 In Defense of Freedom 236 Closing Questions 240 Suggested Readings 240 Chapter 8 Morality and the Good Life 243 Opening Questions 243 The Good Life 245 Hedonism 245 Contents xi Success 247 Asceticism 248 Freedom 249 Power and Creativity 250 Religion 250 Happiness 251 Egoism Versus Altruism 253 Morality and Theories of Morality 257 Duty-Defined Morality 260 Immanuel Kant and the Authority of Reason 261 Consequentialist Theories 263 Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill 263 Aristotle and the Ethics of Virtue 266 Morality—Relative or Absolute? 267 Friedrich Nietzsche and the Attack on Morality 270 Closing Questions 272 Suggested Readings 273 Chapter 9 Justice and the Good Society 275 Opening Questions 275 Morals and Society 276 The Nature of Society 277 Who Should Rule? The Question of Legitimacy 278 Anarchism, the Free Market, and the Need for Government 281 What Is Justice? 283 The Meaning of Equality 286 The Origins of Justice and the Social Contract 289 Rights and the Self 292 Libertarianism 293 Liberalism 293 Communitarianism 293 Closing Questions 294 Suggested Readings 295 Chapter 10 Philosophy, Sex, Race, and Culture 297 Opening Questions 297 Expanding the Philosophical Canon 298 Beyond the Western Tradition 301 xii Contents Other Cultures, Other Philosophies 302 South Asian Philosophy 304 East Asian Philosophy 311 The Middle East 318 Latin American Philosophy 320 Native American and African Philosophy 324 Sexual Politics: The Rise of Feminist Philosophy 328 Women and the Body 332 Plato: Patriarch or Early Feminist? 334 Reason Versus Passion in Ethics: The Ethics of Care 335 Feminist Epistemology and Feminist Science 336 Feminist Philosophy of Language 337 The Revival of African American Philosophy 338 Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X 338 Closing Questions 341 Suggested Readings 341 Chapter 11 Beauty 345 Opening Questions 345 Beauty and Truth 346 Enjoying Tragedy 349 Arguing About Taste 351 Art, Ethics, and Religion 354 The Aesthetics of Popular Culture and Everyday Life 356 Closing Questions 360 Suggested Readings 361 Appendix A Writing Philosophy 363 Opening Questions 363 The Rules of Good Writing in Philosophy 364 Organize 364 Write Simply 366 Be Clear 366 Be Human 367 Use Examples 368 Argue Your Point 371 Consider the Objections and Alternatives 373 Define Your Specialized Terms 373 Use the History of Philosophy 374 Contents xiii Indirect Styles 375 Dialogue Style 376 Ironic Style 379 Aphoristic Style 380 Appendix B Deductive Logic Valid Argument Forms 385 Appendix C Common Informal Fallacies 391 Informal Fallacies 391 Glossary 397 Index 413 This page intentionally left blank Preface t was the fall of 1806, in the college town of Jena, in what we now call Germany. IIt was about the time when most students and professors would have been get- ting ready for their classes, with mixed annoyance and anticipation. The profes- sors would have been finishing up their summer research; the students would have been doing what students usually do at the end of the summer. But this year school would not begin as usual. Napoleon’s troops were already approaching the city, and you could hear the cannon from the steps of the university library. French scouts were already in the town, walking around the university, stopping for a glass of wine in the student bars, and chatting casually with the local residents, many of whom were in sympathy with the new French ideals of “liberty, equality, and fraternity.” As the battle was about to begin, a young philosophy instructor named Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was hastily finishing the book he was writing—a very dif- ficult philosophy book with the forbidding title The Phenomenology of Spirit.