Doctoral Dissertation Contemporary Slavery: The Exploitation of Migrants in Italian Agriculture Author Supervisors Alagie Jinkang Dr. Clelia Bartoli Prof. Ángeles Solanes Corella Coordinator of PhD Program: Prof. Isabel Trujillo PhD in Human Rights: Evolution, Protection & Limits Cycle XXXII° Final exam year 2020 Bob Marley & Wailers ("Survival" (1979)) Survivors (Ow, ow-ow-ow-ow! Ow, ow-ow-ow-ow!) In this age of technological inhumanity (Black Yeah, yeah, yeah! survival), How can you be sitting there Scientific atrocity (survivors), Telling me that you care - Atomic misphilosophy (Black survival), That you care? Nuclear misenergy (survivors): When every time I look around, It's a world that forces lifelong insecurity (Black The people suffer in the suffering survival). In everyway, in everywhere. Together now: Say: na-na-na-na-na (na-na, na-na!): (Na-na-na-na-na!) Na na-na na na! (Na na-na na We're the survivors, yes: the Black survivors! na!) I tell you what: some people got everything; We're the survivors, yeah! Some people got nothing; We're the survivors! Some people got hopes and dreams; Yes, the Black survivors! Some people got ways and means. We're the survivors: A good man is never honoured (survivors) Na-na-na-na-na (na-na, na-na!): in his own country (Black survival). We're the survivors, yes: the Black survivors! Nothing change, nothing strange (survivors). Yes, we're the survivors, like Daniel out of the Nothing change, nothing strange (Black survivors). lions' den We got to survive, y'all! (survivors) (Black survivors) Survivors, survivors! So I Idren, I sistren, A-which way will we choose? We better hurry; oh, hurry; oh, hurry; wo, now! 'Cause we got no time to lose. Some people got facts and claims; Some people got pride and shame; Some people got the plots and schemes; Some people got no aim it seems! Na-na-na-na-na, na-na, na! We're the survivors, yes: the Black survivors! Tell you what: we're the survivors, yeah! - the Black survivors, yeah! We're the survivors, like Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego (Black survivors), Thrown in the fire, but-a never get burn. So I Idren, I-sistren, The preaching and talkin' is done; We've gotta live up, wo now, wo now! - 'Cause the Father's time has come. Some people put the best outside; Some people keep the best inside; Some people can't stand up strong; Some people won't wait for long. (Na-na-na-na-na!) Na-na-na, na-na-na na! We're the survivors !2 Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................6 LIST OF ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................9 PREFACE ...........................................................................................................................................11 CHAPTER I. ......................................................................................................................................13 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................................13 1.1 Background studies ..................................................................................................................13 1.2 The problem under consideration ............................................................................................ 14 1.3 Research topic, conceptual clarification, and usage................................................................. 15 1.4 Research questions ..................................................................................................................27 1.5 Research aim and objectives ....................................................................................................27 1.6 Research methodology and source of data ...............................................................................28 1.7 Thesis structure ........................................................................................................................31 1.8 Ethical Implications ................................................................................................................32 CHAPTER II. .....................................................................................................................................34 JOINING THE DOTS BETWEEN HISTORIC SLAVERY AND CONTEMPORARY SLAVERY 34 2.1 A brief introduction to the plantation slavery of Africans ........................................................34 2.2 The wheels of industrial exploitation and modern economic theories..................................... 37 2.3 Contemporary industrial exploitation of TCNs: from the frying pan to the fire...................... 43 CHAPTER III. ...................................................................................................................................57 A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF ITALIAN AGRICULTURAL EXPLOITATION ...................................57 3.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................57 3.2 Paola Clemente’s story .............................................................................................................57 3.3 Agricultural exploitation: a history of mafia and “Caporalato” ...............................................59 3.4 A mafia-type entrepreneurship and manpower organisation.................................................... 60 3.5 “Caporalato”, and “Agromafia” as the wheels of Italian agricultural exploitation.................. 66 3.6 Data, forms of “caporalato” and the chain of gang-mastering in the agribusiness ..................68 3.7 Mapping “Caporalato” and “Agromafia” in Italian agro-businesses .......................................73 3.8 The agricultural supply chain and “Caporalato” phenomena: facts, figures and data .............82 3.9 Sub-contracting, wages and their impacts: the price system within the agricultural supply chain ...............................................................................................................................................85 3.10 The Italian olive market paradox: production, distribution and prices ..................................87 3.11 Conventional Agricultural Policy (CAP) 1962: social responsibility ....................................89 CHAPTER IV. ....................................................................................................................................91 FIRST CASE STUDY: THE AGRICULTURAL GHETTO OF CAMPOBELLO DI MAZARA (SICILY) COUNTRYSIDE................................................................................................................ 91 4.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................91 4.1.1 Defining terms related with the case study ......................................................................92 4.1.2 The case study period .......................................................................................................94 4.1.3 Why Senegambians as targeted group? ............................................................................ 94 4.1.4 Inquiry method and context analysis ................................................................................95 4.2 Special one-on-one interviews on work and life in the ghetto .................................................97 4.3 The Senegambian Agricultural ghetto of Campobello di Mazara ........................................111 4.3.1 The Senegambians agricultural workers of Campobello di Mazara ...............................111 4.3.2 Work conditions in Campobello area ..............................................................................112 !3 4.3.3 Labour organisation .........................................................................................................114 4.3.4 Atypical Employment Contracts ....................................................................................115 4.3.5 The “Capo Nero” as a symbol of colonial and mafia administration ..............................116 4.4 Migrant workers’ biopsychosocial health .............................................................................119 CHAPTER V. ...................................................................................................................................121 SECOND CASE STUDY: IMPACTS ON THE LOCAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENEGALESE MIGRANTS’ REMITTANCES .......................................................................................................121 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................121 5.2 History of Senegalese migration ............................................................................................122 5.2.1 In search for greener pastures: rural-urban and sub-regional migration of Senegalese ..123 5.2.2 The Economic Communities of West African States (ECOWAS) ..................................124 5.2.3 Marginalisation of traditional livelihoods .......................................................................125 5.3 The geopolitical agencies of present-day migration of Senegalese to Europe....................... 126 5.4 The evolution of migration and development research ..........................................................129 5.5 Remittance inflows to Senegal ...............................................................................................133