Journal of Ecological Anthropology Volume 8 Issue 1 Volume 8, Issue 1 (2004) Article 2 2004 First Nations Perspectives on the Grasslands of the Interior of British Columbia Michael D. Blackstock Rhonda McAllister Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jea Recommended Citation Blackstock, Michael D. and McAllister, Rhonda. "First Nations Perspectives on the Grasslands of the Interior of British Columbia." Journal of Ecological Anthropology 8, no. 1 (2004): 24-46. Available at: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jea/vol8/iss1/2 This Research Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Anthropology at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Ecological Anthropology by an authorized editor of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 24 Journal of Ecological Anthropology Vol. 8 2004 First Nations Perspectives on the Grasslands of the Interior of British Columbia MICHAEL D. BLACKSTOCK RHONDA MCALLISTER Abstract Although the First Nations Elders from the interior of southern British Columbia, Canada, recall times when grass was “belly-high to a horse,” today they worry about the deteriorated state of the grasslands. Using ethnographic and historical research methods, this paper documents recognized First Nations experts’ historical memory of the grasslands. Based on the ethnographic accounts, this paper also attempts to reconstruct the effects of colonization on the grassland ecology and First Nations culture. Secondary sources such as early settlers’ accounts and current grassland ecology research are used to augment the testimony of the experts. Two eras are described: 1) Pre-contact era (the three hundred years prior to contact); and 2) Post-contact era (1846-present). The horse, elk, and sharp- tailed grouse were common on the pre-contact grasslands. Overgrazing of the grasslands occurred soon after the miners and gentlemen ranchers brought in their horses and cattle. Sagebrush increased proportionately to the decrease in grasses. The First Nations culture changed from gathering sustenance off the grasslands to servicing the needs of the new settlers, and then to marginalization by industrial agriculture. A key argument of the paper is that when First Nations’ access to water was diverted by settlers and the wetlands were drained, cultivated, and polluted (both culturally and ecologically), First Nations’ access to the grassland was restricted. The paper concludes by defining grassland restoration from a social and ecological perspective and proposes that water be a key focus of the restoration process. Introduction A First Nations historical perspective on “The grasses were belly-high to a horse, back grassland ecosystems, beginning with images of then.” The Nlaka’pamux (Thompson), Silx (Okana- ecosystem structure and function prior to Euro- gan), Secwepemc (Shuswap), Stl’atl’imx (Lillooet), pean contact, is essential for a meaningful analysis and Ts’ilquot’in (Chilcotin) nations—First Na- of grazing impacts. Additionally, the First Nations tions of the southern interior of British Columbia ecological perspective can provide important insight (BC)— relied, for at least ten thousand years, on the for the management of grasslands and thus should lower, middle and upper elevation grasslands (Gay- be considered an essential component of grassland ton 2003:7; Jules 2001)( Figure 1). Plants found in restoration projects.1 This paper has two purposes: grassland regions were intensely used and managed 1) to record First Nations perspectives on how ag- by First Nations people for subsistence as well as for ricultural activities, especially grazing, have affected medicines, technology and for spiritual and ceremonial their land and culture thereby helping to define the purposes. Plants such as arrow-leaved balsamroot (Bal- reference conditions of the grasslands; and 2) to samorhiza sagittata), bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) and discuss grassland restoration ecology from a First spring beauty (Claytonia lanceolata) were important Nations perspective. food sources. Shrubs such as saskatoon (Amelanchier Using ethnographic and historical research alnifolia) provided sources of food and medicine while methods, this paper chronologically documents trees such as paper birch (Betula papyrifera) found in land use in British Columbia from pre-European the wetter areas of the grasslands provided materials contact through the present. The ethno-historical for the construction of baskets. accounts reveal distinct First Nations and Western Vol. 8 2004 Blackstock and McAllister / First Nations Perspectives on Grasslands 25 Figure 1. Location of grasslands in British Columbia. ecological perspectives on the structure and function Methodology of grassland ecosystems. The data suggest that over- Within an historical ecology framework (Bis- grazing of the Interior Plateau grasslands by livestock manis et al. 2003; Swetnam et al. 1999), two types began early in the settlement of British Columbia. of ethnographic data were collected to document Furthermore, land encroachment and water diversion First Nations experts’ first-hand knowledge of by the ranchers, along with the introduction of the grassland ecology. First, primary ethnographic data horse, created major shifts in the cultural systems of were collected in the form of qualitative and verbal First Nations. Ultimately, it is clear that part of the documentaries (oral history). Next, secondary data challenge of restoring the ecological health and tra- were collected in the form of written “documentaries” ditional uses of grasslands lies in revising traditional (e.g., written, tabulated, mapped or photographic definitions of ‘restoration.’ records) and ecological records (e.g., records of 26 Journal of Ecological Anthropology Vol. 8 2004 pollen, charcoal, plant macrofossils, phytoliths, etc.) The scale of interpretation is also a limita- (Swetnam et al. 1999). Interviewees were chosen be- tion. The Elders’ recollections are a mix of specific cause of their expert knowledge about the grasslands memories of exact locations or general senses across and ranching, in combination with their respected large landscapes (e.g., “belly-high grass”). Thus the knowledge of First Nations history.2 They represent knitting together of themes and accounts can create a cross-section of the three primary nations who scaling errors. A sample of four interviewees does inhabit the grasslands, and are acknowledged in the not represent the diversity of perspectives that the First Nations communities as knowledge keepers or variety of First Nations communities may have about community experts—they would be called upon by the grasslands and its history. Swetnam et al. (1999) their community to speak about the grasslands. discuss other related limitations of historical ecology Four interviews were conducted, taped and such as cultural filtering (i.e., be wary of cultural transcribed, based on a common set of questions.3 In biases inherent within the documentary record), the one case an interpreter was used to translate the oc- no analogue problem (i.e., past ecological conditions casional indigenous word usage during the interview. may have no contemporary to compare with) and the Each interviewee had the opportunity to review the distance decay problem (i.e., extrapolation validity transcribed interview and a draft of this paper; they for described conditions at one locale decreases as provided the research team with written permission spatial and temporal distance increases). to publish the transcribed material. This paper’s intent is to capture the First Nations A thematic analysis was completed on each perspective. Although there is inherent cultural bias transcript. Three steps were involved in the thematic in the research methodology utilized, there is archival analysis: 1) labelling a theme in the margin of each value in capturing oral testimony. As the First Nations paragraph of transcript text; 2) creating a map of knowledge keepers pass away, so too does their oral themes encompassing all transcripts; and 3) analyz- record. Therefore it is imperative for the researcher to ing recurring or anomalous themes. Recurring and capture not only their knowledge but also be able to strongly emphasized themes such as wetlands and the place it within a context. Specifically the researcher horse are captured in the theme analysis; however, needs to analyze any potential biases the Elder may just as important are anomalies such as pre-contact ir- have that might influence the documentary record. rigation. Thematic analysis also involved crosscheck- ing anomalies in accounts with other Elders, as well as Brief Biographies of Four First Nations Elders secondary sources. The hypotheses and assumptions The late Grand Chief Gordon Antoine was the that emerge are derived from the inductive reasoning Chief of the Coldwater Indian Band, and Grand process, but they also rely on the crosschecking pro- Chief of the N’lakapamux Nation in the Nicola Val- cess to establish validity. Where possible, secondary ley, near Merritt, British Columbia. In 1993, Chief written sources, both ethnographic and ecological, Antoine was awarded the Order of British Columbia were reviewed to further explore and corroborate for his community leadership. Chief Antoine, along themes that emerged from primary interviews. with his father, was a cattle rancher. Since his gradua- tion from Merritt Senior Secondary School, he was an Limitations of the Methodology active member