The role of media in conflict: Integrating peace journalism in the journalism curriculum RUKHSANA ASLAM November 4, 2014 A thesis submitted to Auckland University of Technology in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Pacific Media Centre, School of Communication Studies, AUT, New Zealand To those, who believe in the value of peace and contribute towards achieving it. 1 ABSTRACT Many scholars argue that the media plays a significant role in reporting conflict. The nature of that role – as a perpetuator of conflict or agent for peace – largely depends on the framing and agenda setting of the media. Media can also play a crucial role in informing public about conflicts, analysing it and helping to resolve them. This research shows the findings that favour the integration of the knowledge of conflict analysis, conflict resolution and prevention into journalistic education and training along with developing journalistic sensitivity towards social responsibility. Peace journalism is argued to provide an alternate professional paradigm for the journalists to enable them to view, interpret, source and narrate conflicts in ways that seek non-violent responses in society – an approach that ultimately would help transform conflict and lead it towards resolution. This way journalists can educate, inform, correct misperceptions, build confidence and can offer options for resolution. To that objective, this study examines peace journalism from three perspectives: (i) how the journalists regard conflict reporting and what they think is lacking in the contemporary journalism curriculum; (ii) what the conflict resolution workers and educators see as relevant to the journalism profession; and (iii) the view of the peace journalism academics about how peace journalism can complement overall journalism education and training. Participatory Action Research (PAR) was chosen as the appropriate methodology to do the research with three cycles of planning, action and reaction. A content analysis of what was available in terms of peace journalism education in the universities was conducted, along with interviews with twelve international journalists, conflict resolution workers and academics. In the light of the data collected, answers to three questions were sought: (i) can peace journalism be a means of integrating conflict resolution into the journalism curriculum? (ii) Can 2 the ideals of peace journalism be translated into professional practices? And (iii) can the principles of conflict analysis and resolution be integrated into journalism curriculum using the journalistic tools and practices? The researcher’s personal experiences as a journalist and later as an academic in Pakistan provide relevant contextual background to the objectives of this study. America’s so-called ‘War on Terror’ was a daily living reality in her home country from 2003 onwards until she came to New Zealand in 2010 for her research. Her perspective of the conflict was formed after years of living through the political upheaval, social unrest and countless suicide bombings in her city Islamabad. The study concludes that a synergised media strategy needs to be established between the journalists, educators, peace workers and researchers to use the mainstream media space by employing the journalistic creativity that peace journalism offers. 3 Attestation I, Rukhsana Aslam, hereby declare that to the best of my knowledge and belief, the information given in this thesis is true and correct; and I certify that that all the materials that are not my own work have been identified and acknowledged. Rukhsana Aslam 14 Nov 2014 4 CONTENTS Abstract Acknowledgements Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..……………..8 1. Media, Conflict and Conflict Resolution ………………..………………………………….17 2. Peace Journalism....……………………………………….....…….………………………………..58 3. Participatory Action Research……………….........……………………………… ………….94 4. Findings ……………………………………………….……….………..…………………………….. 120 5. Discussion and Analysis.……………………….……….………..……………………………...167 5.1. Introduction…………….....…….……….......................….……………………….…167 5.2 Peace journalism education: finding unity in diversity……….…..…….. 169 5.3. The inverted trident of peace journalism model.........…………………….181 5.4. CAUSE: the generic model for peace journalism education…….………184 5.5. ‘It heals when it reveals’...…….……….......................….………………………197 5.6. Paradigm shift for peace journalism…...............……….……………………..212 5.7. Issues and concerns arising out during the cycles of action, reflection and reaction ………………………........................... 222 6. Conclusion and Recommendations ……………………………………….…………....…233 References….…………………………………………….………..……………..……….………………….245 Appendices 5 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES FIGURES 1.1. Galtung’s triangle of conflict………………..……..…………………………….…………..….31 2.1. Peace journalism application in Mitchell’s Triangle……………………..….……..….90 2.2. Role of media in ‘escalation of conflict’ theory dimension…………………..…….91 5.1. The inverted trident of peace journalism model……..……………………………….183 5.2. The 4P Model for peace journalism………………..……………………………………..…219 TABLES 2.1. War journalism and peace journalism model………………………….……..………….59 2.2. Tehranian’s 10 commandments for peace journalism……………………..…………72 2.3. Comparison of human rights journalism with peace journalism…….……..……………………………..……………………………..………….75 4.1. Selected universities that offer courses on peace journalism…………………..……………………………………………………………..….123 5.1. Parallels between peace journalism and Investigative journalism……….…..……………………..………….…….……………..…….200 6 Acknowledgements The researcher wishes to express deepest gratitude to her primary supervisor Professor David Robie, Director of the Pacific Media Centre, School of Communication Studies, AUT; secondary supervisor Dr. Heather Devere, National Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, University of Otago, Dunedin; and mentor Dr. Frances Nelson, Head of Postgraduate Studies, AUT. Their academic input and guidance has been invaluable for this study; their sharing of knowledge inspirational; and their support and encouragement motivational for the author. Sincere thanks to the Pacific Media Centre and its team, especially Del Abcede, for their friendship, goodwill and well wishes. Special thanks to Dr. Alan Cocker, Head of the School of Communication Studies, AUT, and Kevin Upton, School Manager, for their moral and financial support in enabling the author to present this research at various forums and taking it to completion. Acknowledgment is expressed to the Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, University of Sydney, its director, Associate Professor Jake Lynch and his wife Annabel McGoldrick, for graciously co-hosting the author’s visit to Sydney and participating in this research. Special acknowledgement is made to Tanveer Shahzad, friend and journalist in Pakistan, for organising the visit to Peshawar and arranging interviews with the local journalists. Thanks also to all the journalists, academics and peace activists who agreed to participate in this research and shared their views and experiences. Words of gratitude are also expressed to the family and friends in Pakistan. Last, but not the least, heartfelt thanks to husband Waqar and daughters, Amn and Aleena, for their never-ending supply of love and encouragement. 7 Introduction The reporting of conflicts and conflict resolution in the media and the way it shapes public opinion has been the focus of a debate among journalists and academics in the last two decades. The ability to affect public perception and knowledge among individuals is one of the most important aspects of the power of mass communication (McComb, 1993, cited in Brosius, 1996). The framing and agenda setting by the media, in terms of what makes the news, determines not only the process of public opinion-making; it can also reflect the personal perceptions and prejudices of journalists in interpreting the conflict situations (Aslam, 2010). One element of media that affects the political conflict is the competition that exists among the news media to capture the audience and ratings (Wolfsfeld, 1997; Hackett, 2007). Castells (2007) argues that the increased usage of the alternate media through the internet in the twenty-first century demonstrates a ‘historic shift of the public sphere from the institutional realm to [a] new communication space’ – one in which ‘insurgent politics and social movements can intervene more decisively’. In fact, ‘the media have become the social space where power is decided’, he asserts (p. 238). Such media centric stance warrants ‘further scrutiny of the power relations at work within media domains’ (Shaw, Lynch & Hackett, 2011, p. 8). Hence there have been efforts by the journalists and academics including Bell (1998); Galtung, (1965, 1969, 1996, 2010); Lynch and McGoldrick (2005a, 2005); Shaw et al, (2011), Lynch (2001a, 2003b, 2007, 2010, 2013); Tehranian (2002, 2007); Shaw (2011); Shinar (2003b, 2007); Keeble, Tulloch and Zollmann (2010); and Hackett (1998, 2007, 2011) to find alternate ways to help journalists engage in the ‘journalism of attachment’, one that ‘cares as well as knows’ (Bell, 1998, p. 16); that is ‘responsible’ and ‘accountable’ (Howard, 2003) in reporting conflicts. Such journalism would not contribute to escalating conflict situations but would 8 find ‘non-violent’ responses to them (Galtung, 1996); such journalism would also be ‘ethical’ and professionally ascribe to the standards of ‘good’ journalism