The Influence of Domestic Political Factors on Foreign Policy Formation in an EU Member State: The Case of Slovakia and the Kosovo Status Process Katarína Lezová Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Politics, Goldsmiths College University of London I, Katarína Lezová, declare that the work presented in this thesis is my own. ii To my parents, Lyn Reed and sensei Garry Lever – an extraordinary man who lives by example. iii Abstract This thesis examines how Slovakia formulated its foreign policy regarding the unilateral declaration of Kosovo’s independence in February 2008. Even though considerable external pressure to recognise Kosovo was brought to bear on Bratislava by the United States and key members of the European Union, particularly during its non-permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council (2006-2007), the thesis shows how the decision not to recognise Kosovo was ultimately driven by domestic political factors. Moreover, it demonstrates that the prevailing external view that Slovakia’s position was shaped by concerns over the issue of the ethnic Hungarian minority is incorrect. Instead, the foreign policy-making process was primarily driven by the leader of the Slovak opposition, Mikuláš Dzurinda, as he sought to regain domestic political power. While the Hungarian minority issue did play a role in the debate, its significance extended only to cementing the Slovak position and preventing any re- consideration of its view. Thus, although the Slovak non-recognition policy was the result of an interaction between several factors, this thesis shows that it was, in essence, an internal affair to Slovakia. Although key members of the European Union, as well as the United States, sought to secure EU unity on the question of Kosovo, this thesis shows that there are limits to the EU’s ability to shape the foreign policies of its members – even smaller and newer ones – when strong domestic opposition to a particular course of actions exists in those states. iv Acknowledgements This PhD has taken longer to complete than I initially expected but I believe that as a result of this somehow longer journey it is better than it would have been otherwise. The PhD experience has helped me to grow and I came out of it as a different person. However, I would never be able to do so without the guidance and support of some inspiring people. In truth, I was very fortunate to have met a number of them and without their help this thesis would not be completed. I would like to start by thanking all diplomats, government representatives, officials, journalists and experts who went out of their way and gave of their precious time. I am grateful for their trust when they shared their views with me – sometimes more openly than I expected. Without their insights, this thesis would not exist. They have opened their ‘political world’ to me and talking to them was a great learning experience. Needless to say, I take full responsibility for any errors and omissions that might occur in this thesis. I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Jasna Dragović-Soso, for her advice, support and for having time to read endless versions of my chapters. Her feedback has enabled me to grow and reflect on my arguments. I am grateful for her guidance and patience in critical moments as it allowed me to re-gain focus and improve my academic writing. I am very thankful to my examiners, Dr Spyros Economides and Professor Stefan Wolff, for all their comments, valuable feedback on my work and a discussion that made my viva an enjoyable experience. A special thank you goes to Dr James Ker-Lindsay who has been not only an academic that I greatly admire but a mentor and a friend. His belief in me and my work at times when it got tough was crucial. I am grateful for stimulating talks we had on Kosovo and for introducing me to other people with expertise on the Balkan region. Especially, he always had time for yet another meeting and for giving me sound advice on my writing. His support has been vital for my progress, particularly during the most challenging moments and I am deeply grateful for the combination of encouragement, inspiration and advice he gave me. In fact, it was him who put the idea for this thesis in my head. Indeed, he was there at the start and it is a pleasure to know that he saw this thesis completed. I also want to thank Professor Les Back for his inspiration during the course ‘Academic Practice for PhD Students’ that he led at Goldsmiths during 2011/12. I am grateful for his approach, the opportunities to present my PhD and for teaching me what it means to have ‘my own signature’ and ‘my own voice’ in academia and beyond. It was crucial for my development. I would also like to thank Dr Anna Traianou who introduced me to elite interviewing during her PhD course on Qualitative Research Methods, as it opened a new avenue in my research. I am also grateful that Dr Annemarie Peen Rodt invited me to participate at a roundtable on ‘Self-determination after Kosovo’ taking place in London in December 2010. It was a very stimulating environment. I am thankful that she encouraged me to write an article on Slovakia and Kosovo for the Special Issue of the Europe Asia Studies Journal, ‘Self-determination after Kosovo’. I would also like to thank Eliška Sláviková for always having time to talk about her work experience in the Balkans and for sharing with me her valuable insights from Kosovo. These debates have inspired me. v I am deeply grateful to my karate teacher, sensei Garry Lever, for it was from him that I have learnt the biggest life lessons and with whose help I have discovered a completely new martial arts path that changed my life. I am thankful for his patience and the trust he placed in me when he accepted me into his dojo. He taught me to look beyond the physical aspect of martial arts, to have purpose in everything I do and not to give up in any life circumstance. I have also learnt to question things, and rather than awaiting responses from others, to find my own answers. These teachings have helped me immensely in my life and throughout my doctorate studies in particular. Completing this PhD means that I have been able to overcome some of my weaknesses and thus, put my martial arts studies in practice. It is my sincere hope that with this thesis I can somehow say ‘thank you’ for all his time and kindness that helped me to polish my character. He is a teacher that I will never equal but I have a lifetime to aspire to do so – as the path is endless. This thesis could not be completed without financial support from my university and some external bodies. In 2013, I received support from the Graduate School Research Fund at Goldsmiths and funding from Gilchrist Charitable Trust which I greatly appreciate. I am also very thankful for the funds I received in 2012 from Goldsmiths through the Access to Learning Fund and the Annual Fund Student support scheme. They came at a vital moment. In 2011/12, I was fortunate to be awarded a main study grant from the British Federation of Women Graduates. This was essential for my progress as it enabled me to continue with my research. I am deeply grateful for this support. In 2010, I received a fieldtrip grant from The University Association for Contemporary European Studies (UACES) and the European Commission that enabled me to carry out essential fieldwork. I also want to thank The Sidney Perry Foundation, The Sir Richard Stapley Educational Trust, and Roger and Sarah Bancroft Charitable Trust for seeing some potential in my work and supporting me financially throughout my studies. My deepest thank you goes also to the staff at the Goldsmiths Careers Service in the Laurie Grove for advice and help that they provided me with during my doctorate studies and in the end, enabling me to join their team, and for being such great colleagues. I also want to thank Sharon Alleyne for her understanding and very individual approach. She inspired me when it was very much needed. Likewise, I am grateful to the IT staff at the Goldsmiths library for assistance and always solving my technical problems with a smile. My thanks also go to my PhD friends from the Department of Politics – Kenan Aksu and Aya Hino. Kenan has been a great friend and I particularly appreciate his support towards the end of my studies. A very special thank you goes to my friend Katherine Stefatos who has already successfully completed her PhD studies and embarked on a great career journey. Her support, encouragement, suggestions and understanding have been crucial. I appreciate her academic support, her time to read and comment on my chapters and giving me wide-ranging advice as well as personal encouragement when it was needed. I am also grateful to my friends from the ‘Academic Practice for PhD Students’ course, especially Mona Kriegler and Tommaso Perego, for their support, encouragement and all talks – about studies and life – that made the end of my doctorate so much more enjoyable. Emma Grundy Haigh has been a PhD friend with whom we shared interesting talks at Goldsmiths. I am truly fortunate to have met them all. I also want to thank my friends: Nathalie Harrison, particularly for her time to proofread my papers during the early stages, her extreme attention to detail and for being such a wonderful friend; Jeremy Williams, Vlado Kmec, Michael Jarosch vi for his help during my research trip to Brussels, Gezim Idrishti for our talks on Kosovo, Ahmed Shokri and Dan & Anca for their unquestionable support.