Selected Collaborative Problem-Solving Methods for Industry Dr. A. Mark Doggett Dept. of Industrial Technology Humboldt State University (707) 826-4980 [email protected] Despite thethe availability ofof a widewide rangerange ofof problemproblem solvingsolving methods,methods, individualsindividuals continuecontinue to struggle with problems.problems. ScientistsScientists attempt to addressaddress recurringrecurring economic,economic, social,social, political,political, andand organizationalorganizational problemsproblems throughthrough thethe expansionexpansion ofof knowledgeknowledge andand theory.theory. GoldrattGoldratt (1990) hypothesizedhypothesized that every sciencescience goesgoes throughthrough threethree phases ofof development:development: classifi cation,cation, correlation,correlation, andand cause-effect. In thethe classifi cationcation phase,phase, a phenomenonphenomenon is logicallylogically categorizedcategorized resultingresulting in a systematicsystematic identifiidentifi cation.cation. ExamplesExamples includeinclude thethe locationlocation ofof stars or thethe phylumphylum namesnames ofof variousvarious plantsplants andand animals.animals. In correlationcorrelation phase,phase, scientistsscientists determinedetermine how thethe phenomenonphenomenon works throughthrough observationsobservations andand roughrough calculations.calculations. Early astronomersastronomers used correlationcorrelation to suggestsuggest ellipticalelliptical solar orbits andand modernmodern physicistsphysicists use it to estimateestimate thethe locationlocation ofof an electronelectron aroundaround thethe atom. WhenWhen askedasked about his innovation,innovation, thethe ToyotaToyota kanban system, Dr. Taiichi Ohno replied, “My system doesdoes notnot makemake sensesense at all, but by God it’s working”working” (Goldratt,(Goldratt, 1990, p.28). TheThe thirdthird phase ofof cause-effect is characterizedcharacterized by thethe why question.question. Newton'sNewton's methodsmethods createdcreated thethe sciencescience ofof astronomyastronomy andand changedchanged foreverforever thethe way people viewview thethe stars.stars. Cause-effect relationshipsrelationships advanceadvance logicallogical explanations,explanations, predictpredict futurefuture events,events, andand forecastforecast consequences.consequences. TheoriesTheories andand thinkingthinking based on cause-effect fi ndingsndings becomebecome recognizedrecognized sciencescience (Goldratt,(Goldratt, 1990) andand movemove thethe fi eld ofof inquiry fromfrom "art" to that ofof disciplineddisciplined examination.examination. In problemproblem solving,solving, thethe rootroot cause ofof thethe problemproblem producesproduces an undesirableundesirable effect. AnyAny pursuit that doesdoes notnot seek thethe rootroot cause leads only to thethe symptom ofof thethe problemproblem and,and, by defidefi nition,nition, solvingsolving a symptom will notnot solve a problem.problem. ProblemProblem solvers identifyidentify rootroot causes ofof problemsproblems to be able to predictpredict futurefuture cause anandd effect relationships.relationships. TheThe purposeful applicationapplication ofof an analysisanalysis methodmethod can addressaddress complexcomplex problemsproblems usingusing a structuredstructured approachapproach ratherrather than emotionemotion or intuition.intuition. Problem Solving Methods TheThe scientifiscientifi c methodmethod is thethe generallygenerally accepted frameworkframework forfor solvingsolving problemsproblems in WesternWestern culture.culture. NoNo discussiondiscussion ofof problemproblem solvingsolving methodsmethods would be complete withoutwithout mentioningmentioning it. TheThe scientifiscientifi c methodmethod has nono particularparticular inventor;inventor; it seemsseems to have evolved over timetime based on thethe work ofof fi fteenth-centuryfteenth-century scholars.scholars. ItIt is,is, however,however, thethe basis forfor mostmost problemproblem solvingsolving approachesapproaches used today.today. TheThe basicbasic scientifiscientifi c methodmethod is as follows:follows: 1. Defi ne the problem 2. Formulate a hypothesis 3. Gather appropriate data 4. Test the hypothesis 5. Develop conclusions (Wilson et al., 1993, p. 74) AnotherAnother problemproblem solvingsolving model,model, PDCA (Plan, Do, Check,Check, Act),Act), was developeddeveloped by W.W. EdwardsEdwards DemingDeming (1986) whowho derivedderived it fromfrom ShewhartShewhart (1986). ItIt is a four-stepfour-step processprocess forfor continuouscontinuous problemproblem solving.solving. TheThe fourfour stagesstages ofof PDCA represent:represent: (1) thethe analysisanalysis andand planningplanning ofof problemproblem solving,solving, (2) thethe actionsactions takentaken to resolveresolve thethe problem,problem, (3) thethe evaluationevaluation ofof thethe results,results, andand (4) thethe modifimodifi cationcation ofof activitiesactivities that eithereither confi rm or disconfi rm thethe desireddesired results.results. PDCA is sometimessometimes referredreferred to as thethe DemingDeming Cycle because hehe introducedintroduced thethe conceptconcept to thethe JapaneseJapanese whowho subsequentlysubsequently namednamed it after him (Cox,(Cox, et al., 1995). TheThe PDCA modelmodel representsrepresents a simplifi ed versionversion ofof thethe scientifiscientifi c method.method. Unfortunately,Unfortunately, its simplicitysimplicity misleads manymany problemproblem solvers in that it leaves open thethe methodmethod ofof accomplishment.accomplishment. AndersonAnderson andand Fagerhaug’sFagerhaug’s (2000) problemproblem solvingsolving modelmodel consistsconsists ofof problemproblem identifiidentifi cation,cation, problemproblem defidefi nition,nition, problemproblem understanding,understanding, rootroot cause identifiidentifi cation,cation, rootroot cause elimination,elimination, andand symptom monitoring.monitoring. This particularparticular modelmodel representsrepresents a comprehensivecomprehensive andand time-consumingtime-consuming approachapproach to problemproblem solving.solving. AsAs such,such, detaileddetailed modelsmodels likelike this shouldshould be used only whenwhen thethe problemproblem to be solved is worth thethe efforteffort to solve them.them. In otherother words,words, theythey shouldshould notnot be used forfor easy problemsproblems (Brown,(Brown, 1994). 2004 Selected Papers • www.nait.org • 193 LatinoLatino andand LatinoLatino (1999) suggestedsuggested a problem-solvingproblem-solving modelmodel usingusing thethe acronymacronym PROACT,PROACT, whichwhich standsstands for:for: PReserve eventevent data;data; OrderOrder thethe analysisanalysis team; AnalyzeAnalyze thethe data;data; CommunicateCommunicate fi ndingsndings andand recommendations;recommendations; andand TrackTrack forfor results.results. ArcaroArcaro (1997) offeredoffered a six-step problem-solvingproblem-solving model:model: (1) identifyidentify andand select thethe problem,problem, (2) analyzeanalyze thethe problem,problem, (3) generategenerate potentialpotential solutions,solutions, (4) select andand plan thethe solution,solution, (5) implementimplement thethe solution,solution, andand (6) evaluateevaluate thethe solutionsolution implementation.implementation. Wilson et al. (1993) selected an approachapproach based on thethe scientifiscientifi c methodmethod that includesincludes thethe followingfollowing elements:elements: set up appropriateappropriate reportingreporting systems;systems; defidefi nene thethe criteriacriteria forfor problemproblem selection;selection; select candidatescandidates forfor analysis;analysis; select analysisanalysis techniques to be used; developdevelop solutions;solutions; andand test solutions.solutions. Finally,Finally, SproullSproull (2001) used ten steps to describedescribe thethe process:process: (1) identifyidentify thethe problem,problem, (2) describedescribe andand defidefi nene thethe problem,problem, (3) list thethe symptoms,symptoms, (4) list thethe knownknown changeschanges (that occurredoccurred priorprior to thethe problem),problem), (5) analyzeanalyze thethe problem,problem, (6) hypothesizehypothesize possible causes,causes, (7) test possible causes,causes, (8) taketake actionaction on thethe causes,causes, (9) test andand implementimplement thethe solution,solution, andand (10) implementimplement thethe appropriateappropriate controls.controls. While thesethese methodsmethods shareshare somesome commoncommon themes,themes, theirtheir greatestgreatest similarity is that theythey all representrepresent strustructuredctured approachesapproaches to problemproblem solving.solving. While unstructuredunstructured approachesapproaches suchsuch as intuition,intuition, networking,networking, andand priorprior experienceexperience maymay be validvalid forfor solvingsolving problems,problems, theythey areare also moremore subjective andand less repeatable.repeatable. ProblemProblem solvingsolving that is notnot repeatablerepeatable has a higherhigher potentialpotential forfor failurefailure because practitionerspractitioners will likelylikely repeatrepeat thethe samesame mistakesmistakes to gain thethe intuitionintuition andand experienceexperience necessarynecessary to solve themthem again. Likewise,Likewise, unstructuredunstructured approachesapproaches generallygenerally resultresult in outcomesoutcomes that addressaddress symptomssymptoms only.only. Consequently,Consequently, whywhy shouldshould people spendspend thethe timetime andand efforteffort to solve thethe samesame problemsproblems continually?continually?