THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE THE APPLICATION OF JUS AD BELLUM AND JUS IN BELLO TO THE CONFLICT IN AFGHANISTAN MAHA WAGDI SAYED EID A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW (DECEMBER 2002) The American University in Cairo THE APPLICATION OF JUS AD BELLUM AND JUS IN BELLO TO THE CONFLICT IN AFGHANISTAN A Thesis Submitted by Maha Wagdi Sayed Eid To Department of Political Science December 2002 In partial fulfillment of the requirements for The degree of Master of Arts Has been approved by Dr. Curtis Doebbler Thesis Committee Advisor _________________________________ Affiliation ___________________________________________________ Dr. Jean Allain Thesis Committee Reader _________________________________ Affiliation ___________________________________________________ Dr. Hayat Alvi Thesis Committee Reader _________________________________ Affiliation ___________________________________________________ __________________ _______ ___________ _______ Department Chair Date Dean of Huss Date ii ABSTRACT This thesis examines the application of international humanitarian law to the international armed conflict that took place in Afghanistan starting in October 2001. It examines the Unites States’ right to use force in self-defense against Afghanistan in retaliation for the 11 September 2001 incidents that involved the destruction of the twin towers in New York and damaged the Pentagon in Washington D.C. It further evaluates whether the United States and the de facto government of Afghanistan, the Taliban, committed violations of international law. Finally, the thesis identifies the possible remedies to which States may have recourse when they commit internationally wrongful acts, including violations of international humanitarian law, by among other alternatives, briefly examining the prospects for action by the International Criminal Court in such situations. The thesis argues and proves the following: the United States was not justified in using force as self-defense against Afghanistan (based on the evidence available); Afghanistan’s use of force in self-defense against the United States and its allies was justified; international humanitarian law applies regardless of whether the use of force was legitimate or not; the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and other customary norms apply to this armed conflict; indiscriminate attacks and the treatment of prisoners of war by the United States, and placing civilians near military targets and taking over hospitals for military purposes by the Taliban, violated norms of international humanitarian law; and finally remedies for violations of international law (use of force) and international humanitarian law are applicable. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF AUTHORITIES ......................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................8 QUESTIONS OF LAW.............................................................................................12 SOURCES OF LAW..................................................................................................13 LEGAL METHODOLOGY......................................................................................16 CHAPTER I: Use of Force........................................................................................19 A. General Overview on the Use of Force and the Development of its Prohibition19 1. Customary International Law in Relation to the Use of Force ........................20 2. Treaty Law in Relation to the Use of Force.....................................................22 B. Jus ad bellum.......................................................................................................24 C. Legality of the Use of Force on Afghanistan......................................................25 1. The United States Attack on Afghanistan:.......................................................27 D. Legality of the Use of Force by the Taliban Government of Afghanistan..........38 CHAPTER II: Historical Overview of International Humanitarian Law and its Application..................................................................................................................40 A. History and Evolution of International Humanitarian Law.................................40 1. Cultural Context of International Humanitarian Law......................................40 2. Development of International Humanitarian Law...........................................43 B. Customary International Humanitarian Law.......................................................50 C. Martens Clause....................................................................................................53 D. Contemporary Developments in International Humanitarian Law.....................55 CHAPTER III: International Humanitarian Law..................................................57 A. Nature of the Conflict in Afghanistan.................................................................57 B. Status of Combatants...........................................................................................58 C. Application of Treaty Law: the Geneva Conventions.........................................59 D. Application of Customary International Law......................................................62 1. Hague Conventions..........................................................................................62 2. Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1949................................................62 E. Violations of International Humanitarian Law by Parties to the Conflict...........63 1. Indiscriminate Attacks......................................................................................64 2. The Issue of Prisoners of War at Guantanamo Bay (Camp X-Ray) ................81 3. Placing Civilians Near Military Targets...........................................................99 4. Taking Over Hospitals for Military Purposes................................................102 iv CHAPTER IV: Remedies Due as a Consequence to Violations of International Law............................................................................................................................104 A. General Remedies for States Under International Law.....................................104 1. Restitution......................................................................................................108 2. Compensation.................................................................................................111 3. Just Satisfaction..............................................................................................113 B. Remedies for Violations of jus ad bellum.........................................................115 C. Remedies for Violations of jus in bello or International Humanitarian Law. ...117 D. Future Role of the International Criminal Court...............................................125 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................129 BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................135 APPENDIX A: Excerpts from the UN Charter.....................................................147 APPENDIX B: Table showing the development of international humanitarian law instruments since 1864......................................................................................151 APPENDIX C: Diagram showing prison cells at Camp X-Ray...........................153 APPENDIX D: Common Articles 2 + 3 of the Geneva Conventions of 1949 & (Common Article 63, 62, 142, 158 in their respective order) ...............................154 APPENDIX E: Excerpts from Geneva Convention (I).........................................156 APPENDIX F: Excerpts from Geneva Convention (II) .......................................157 APPENDIX G: Excerpts from Geneva Convention (III).....................................158 APPENDIX H: Excerpts from Geneva Convention (IV) .....................................165 APPENDIX I: Excerpts from Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions.................168 APPENDIX J: Excerpts from Hague Convention (IV) ........................................174 APPENDIX K: Excerpts from ILC Draft on State Responsibility (2001)..........176 APPENDIX L: Excerpts from the International Criminal Court Statute .........178 v TABLE OF AUTHORITIES Legal Instruments: Treaties: Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field, 129 Consol. T.S. 361 (entered into force June 22, 1865). Hague Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulation concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, 26 Martens Nouveau Recueil (ser. 2) 949, 187 Consol. T.S. 429 (entered into force Sept. 4, 1900). Hague Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulation concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, 3 Martens Nouveau Recueil (ser. 3) 461, 187 Consol. T.S. 227 (entered into force Jan. 26, 1910). Hague Convention (VIII) relative to the laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mines, 3 Martens Nouveau Recueil (ser. 3) 580, 205 Consol. T.S. 331 (entered into force Jan. 26, 1910). Kellogg-Briand Pact, Aug. 27, 1928, 46 Stat. 2343, 94 L.N.T.S. 57. Geneva