Florida International University FIU Digital Commons FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations University Graduate School 6-13-2007 I had a different way of governing : the evangelical presidential style of Jimmy Carter and his mission for middle east peace D. Jason Berggren Florida International University DOI: 10.25148/etd.FI14051111 Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd Part of the American Politics Commons Recommended Citation Berggren, D. Jason, "I had a different way of governing : the evangelical presidential style of Jimmy Carter and his mission for middle east peace" (2007). FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1624. https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/1624 This work is brought to you for free and open access by the University Graduate School at FIU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of FIU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY Miami, Florida "I HAD A DIFFERENT WAY OF GOVERNING": THE EVANGELICAL PRESIDENTIAL STYLE OF JIMMY CARTER AND HIS MISSION FOR MIDDLE EAST PEACE A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in POLITICAL SCIENCE by D. Jason Berggren 2007 To: Interim Dean Mark Szuchman College of Arts and Sciences This dissertation, written by D. Jason Berggren, and entitled "I Had A Different Way of Governing": The Evangelical Presidential Style of Jimmy Carter and His Mission for Middle East Peace, having been approved in respect to style and intellectual content, is referred to you for judgment. We have read this dissertation and recommend that it be approved. Kevin A. Hill Lesley A. Northup John F. Stack, Jr. Nicol C. Rae, Major Professor Date of Defense: June 13, 2007 The dissertation of D. Jason Berggren is approved. Interim Dean Mark Szuchman College of Arts and Sciences Dean George Walker University Graduate School Florida International University, 2007 ii DEDICATION I dedicate this dissertation to my children, Joshua and Eva, my parents, Loren and Phyllis Berggren, and my in-laws, Harvey and Joan Levine. Without their love, encouragement, and patience, the completion of this project would not have been possible. But most of all, I am especially indebted to Bonnie, my loving wife these past eleven years. She has been my rock of support, love, understanding, patience, and faith. I thank and love her so much. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank all my committee members, Lesley A. Northup (especially for her editorial work), John F. Stack, Jr., and Kevin A. Hill, for their service and encouragement on this project and throughout my years at Florida International University. I also express my thanks to the staff at the Jimmy Carter Library for their assistance and expertise. I express special thanks to my committee chair and major professor, Nicol C. Rae. Four years ago, this project began as a research paper in his presidency seminar. Since then, Dr. Rae has read and corrected many drafts, pointed out various sources to consult, and helped me clarify the idea of the evangelical presidential style. Additionally, during this time, we collaborated on two conference papers, a journal article, and a book chapter. I thank him for his insights, his constructive criticisms and challenges, his patience, his availability, and his friendship. He has been a true mentor. I could not have had a better advisor. Funding for this project was made possible by the Florida International University Dissertation Year Fellowship. iv ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION "I HAD A DIFFERENT WAY OF GOVERNING": THE EVANGELICAL PRESIDENTIAL STYLE OF JIMMY CARTER AND HIS MISSION FOR MIDDLE EAST PEACE by D. Jason Berggren Florida International University, 2007 Miami, Florida Professor Nicol C. Rae, Major Professor President Jimmy Carter once said, "I had a different way of governing." In attempting to explain what he meant by this, Carter has been variously described as a political amateur, a trustee, a non-political politician, an "active-positive" president, and a forerunner of the 1990s' New Democrats. It is argued here, however, that mere secular descriptions and categories such as these do not adequately capture the essence of Carter's brand of politics and his understanding of the presidency. Rejecting Richard Neustadt's prescriptions for effective presidential leadership, Carter thought political bargaining and compromise were "dirty" and "sinful." He deemed the ways of Washington as "evil," and considered many, if not most, career politicians immoral. While he fully supported the institutional separation of church and state, politics for Carter was about "doing right," telling the truth, and making the United States and the world "a better demonstration of what Christ is." Like two earlier Democrats, William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson, Carter understood politics v as an alternative form of Christian ministry and service. In this regard, Carter was a presidential exception. Carter's evangelical faith gave his politics meaning, skill, vision, and a framework for communication. Using Fred Greenstein's categories of presidential leadership, Carter's faith provided him with "emotional intelligence", too. However, Carter's evangelical style provoked many of his contemporaries, including many of his fellow Democrats. To his critics at home and abroad, Carter was often accused of being arrogant, stubborn, naive, and ultimately a political failure. But as evinced by his indispensable role in negotiating peace between Israel and Egypt, his leadership style also provided him some remarkable achievements. The research here is based on a thorough examination of President Carter's many writings, his public papers, interviews, and opinion pieces. Written accounts from former Carter administration officials and from Israeli and Egyptian participants at Camp David are also used. This project is largely descriptive, qualitative in approach, but quantitative data are used when appropriate and as supplements. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE PREFACE 1 INTRODUCTION: The Promise of an Evangelical-Styled Presidency 3 I. The Religion Gap in the Presidential Literature of Jimmy Carter 33 II. The Origins of the Evangelical Presidential Style: The Leadership Alternative of William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson 90 III. Features of the Evangelical Presidential Style: Presidential Communication, Skill, Vision, and Emotional Control 144 IV. "I Had a Different Way of Governing": The Living Faith of President Carter 187 V. The "Real" Carter Doctrine: Foreign Policy Guidelines from the Sermon on the Mount 269 VI. "Blessed Are the Peacemakers" Carter's Mission and Vision for Middle East Peace 314 VII. Israel, the Arabs, and the Middle East in Presidential Memory: Carter in Comparative Perspective 432 VIII. CONCLUSION: "More Missionary Than Politician" 483 BIBLIOGRAPHY 501 APPENDICES 555 VITA 564 vii LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1.1 1996 Scholarly Assessments of Modern Presidents 37 1.2 2000 Scholarly Assessments of Modern Presidents 39 1.3 2005 Scholarly Assessments of Modern Presidents 39 1.4 Public Assessments of Modern Presidents, 2004-2006 41 1.5 Most Appearances in Gallup's "Top 10 Most Admired Man" List, 1948-2006 42 1.6 Public Favorability Assessments of Living Former Presidents, 2007 43 1.7 Carter: A Religious Person, 1976-1980 73 1.8 Carter: A Man of High Moral Principles, 1976-1980 73 1.9 Gallup's Personality Profile of President Carter, 1978-1980 74 1.10 Carter and His Contemporaries: Religion Person or Not Particularly Religious 76 1.11 Carter and His Contemporaries: Man of High Moral Principles or Not Particularly Moral 77 2.1 Carter's Southern and Northeastern Electoral Strength Compared 94 2.2 National and Regional Electoral Strength of American Presidents, 1896-2004 95 3.1 George W. Bush as "Honest and Trustworthy," 1999-2005 164 3.2 Bill Clinton as "Honest and Trustworthy," 1992-2001 166 4.1 1999-2000 Historian Assessments of Modern Presidential Relations with Congress 247 4.2 Democratic Presidents and Democratic-controlled Congresses 251 5.1 Carter in Comparative Perspective on War and Peace 303 viii 6.1 Meetings with Foreign Leaders During Carter's First 100 Days 333 6.2 Timeline of Key Events in the Middle East Peace Process, 1977-1981 428 ix LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 4.1 President Carter's Weekly Church Attendance Rate, 1977-1981 192 4.2 President Carter's Major Addresses by Topic 231 4.3 U.S. Presidents and Executive Orders, 1953-2001 252 6.1 Approval of President Carter's Handling of Foreign Policy, 1977-1979 415 6.2 Jewish Vote for Democratic Presidential Candidates, 1916-2004 418 7.1 Relevance of Religion: Can Answer All or Most of Today's Problems or Is Largely Old-Fashioned and Out of Date 441 7.2 Viewing Israel and the Middle East: Religiously Significant or Not? 442 7.3 Religious Beliefs Biggest Influence on Middle East Views (% Yes) 444 7.4 Land of Israel Given By God to the Jewish People (% Yes) 445 7.5 Modern State of Israel as a Fulfillment of Bible Prophecy (% Yes) 446 x I had a different way of governing...I was a Southerner, a born-again Christian,a Baptist, a newcomer. I am a Christian. I'm the most important thing in my ife is Jesus Christ. I have consideredmyself in full-time Christianservice every day I have been governor. I'm runningfor President because I'm a deeply religiousperson. I'm a father and I'm a Christian;I'm a businessman and I'm a Christian, I'm a farmer and I'm a Christian;I'm a politician and I'm a Christian. The most important thing in my life beyond all else is Jesus Christ. Christ has set the standardI am to attain as his representative. I try to pattern my lfe after his lfe. The standardsof government should exemplfy the highest attributes of mankind, and not the lowest common denominator.