Vedic Corpus Historians divide the Vedic corpus into two parts early and later Vedic texts Early Vedic literature refers to the family books of the Rig Veda Samhita. Later Vedic literature includes Books 1, 8, 9, and 10 of the Rig Veda Samhita, the Samhitas of the Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas, and the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads attached to all the four Vedas. Political Situation • The Rig Veda is pervaded with the aura of warring tribes. About 30 tribes and clans are mentioned. • Five tribes—the Yadu, Turvasha, Puru, Anu, and Druhyu—are collectively known as the ‘five peoples’ (pancha-jana, pancha- kristhya, or pancha-manusha). • The Purus and Bharatas are the two dominant tribes. • Initially, they seem to have been allies, but at some point, they fell apart. • The Rig Veda mentions a chief of the Purus named Trasadasyu. • It also mentions a famous Bharata king named Divodasa and describes his victory over the Dasa ruler Shambara, who had many mountain fortresses. • Many Rig Vedic hymns beseech the gods for victory in battle. • It is difficult to distinguish between mythical and historical events, between demons and real enemies. • There are several references to conflicts with the Dasas and Dasyus. • One view is that these were the aboriginal people encountered by the Indo-Aryan tribes. • However, they may actually represent earlier (pre-Vedic) waves of Indo- Aryan immigrants. • Prayers to Indra to defeat not only the Dasa but also the Arya enemies indicate that there were conflicts among the Aryas too. • There are about 300 clearly non-Indo-European words in the Rig Veda. • These ‘loan words’ show that the Rig Vedic people were interacting with people speaking Dravidian and Munda languages. • There are many tribes with non-Indo-Aryan names in the Rig Veda, such as the Chumuri, Dhuni, Pipru, and Shambara. The text also refers to Arya chieftains with non-Indo-Aryan names, e.g., Balbutha and Bribu. • All this is indicative of processes of cultural interaction • The ‘battle of ten kings’ (dasharajna), recounted in Book 7 of the Rig Veda Samhita may be based on an actual historical incident. • In this battle, the Bharata chief Sudas, grandson of Divodasa, fought against a confederacy of 10 tribes (Yadu, Turvasha, Puru, Anu, and Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha, Shiva, Vishanina). • The mention of the Purus, their former allies, as a part of this confederacy indicates that political alliances were fluid and shifting. • Vishvamitra, the Bharata purohita, seems to have been replaced by Vasishtha before the battle, reflecting another sort of behind-the-scenes re-alignment. • The great battle took place on the banks of the river Parushni (Ravi). • The Bharatas won by breaking a natural dam on the river. • Marching on to the Yamuna, they defeated a local ruler named Bheda. • Sudas eventually settled down along the Sarasvati and celebrated his victory and position of political paramountcy by performing the ashvamedha sacrifice. • The word rajan (or raja) occurs many times in the family books of the Rig Veda. Since a full fledged monarchical state had not yet emerged, this word is best translated as ‘chieftain’ or ‘noble’, rather than as ‘king’. • It is not always clear from the hymns whether the rajan was the chief of a tribe, clan, clan segment or several clans. • But his main task was to protect his people and to lead them to victory in war. • The reference to the chieftain as gopa or gopati (lord of the cattle) indicates that protecting and increasing the cattle herd was his other major role • Animals such as horses, goats, and sheep are mentioned in the family books, but cattle were clearly prized the most. • R. S. Sharma (1983: 24) has drawn attention to the many derivations of the word gau (cow) in the Rig Veda. • Words for war with the infix gau—such as gavishti, gaveshana, goshu, and gavya— suggest that many battles were in effect cattle raids. • Further indications of the importance of cattle come from other words containing the gau infix. • The tribal chief was known as janasya gopa. • Measures of time included godhuli (dusk) and samgava (morning), measures of area/distance included gavyuti and gocharman. • The buffalo was known as gauri or gavala. • The daughter was duhitri (she who milks cows). Gojit (winner of cows) was a word for a hero. • A wealthy person was known as gomat (owner of cattle). • One of the epithets of the god Indra was gopati (lord of cattle). • The royal priest accompanied the rajan to battle, recited prayers, and supervised the performance of rituals. • The importance of royal priests such as Vasishtha and Vishvamitra is reflected in many Vedic hymns. • Bali refers to an offering made to a god; it also means tribute periodically offered by the clansmen to the rajan. • Tribute was no doubt also extracted from tribes defeated in battle. • A regular taxation system had not yet emerge • The Rig Veda mentions assemblies such as the sabha and samiti. • The distinctions between their functions are not entirely clear. • The sabha seems to have been a smaller, more elite gathering, whereas the samiti appears to have been a larger assembly presided over by the rajan. • Such assemblies may have played an important role in the redistribution of resources. • Hymns express the desire for harmony among members (‘Assemble, speak together; let your minds be all of one accord.’). • The vidatha has been understood as a tribal assembly with diverse functions. • However, it actually seems to refer to a local congregation of people meeting to perform socio-religious rituals and ceremonies for the well-being of the settlement • The family books contain several terms for socio- political units, many of which were based on kinship. • These include jana, vish, gana, grama, griha, and kula. • The jana of the Rig Veda can be translated as tribe, vish is often translated as people in general or as clan, and gana as lineage. • Grama, which later came to mean village, seems to have originally referred to a mobile group of people who may or may not have been related to each other through kinship. Socio-Economic Conditions • Some scholars have used the number of references to pastoral versus agricultural activities in the family books as an index of their relative importance • Some scholars have concluded that while cattle rearing was of overwhelming importance, agriculture was either a subsidiary activity or one that was practiced by non-Indo- Aryans. • However, the frequency of usage in religious or ritualistic texts and contexts may not be an accurate indicator of the relative importance of these activities in everyday life. • Apart from word frequencies, it is necessary to examine the nature and content of the references • R. N. Nandi (1989–90) has drawn attention to the many references to agricultural activity in the Rig Veda and argues that it was by no means marginal. • The verbs vap (to sow) and krish (to cultivate) occur, along with references to various agricultural implements. • Phala, langala, and sira are words for the plough, which must have been made of wood. Other implements included the hoe (khanitra), sickle (datra, srini), and axe (parashu, kulisha). • The word kshetra has a range of meanings, including a cultivated field. Hymns refer to the levelling of fields for cultivation, the desire for fertile fields (urvara), and furrows (sita) drenched by rain, producing rich harvests. • The only terms for cereals are yava (barley or a generic term for cereal) and dhanya (a generic term for cereals). • There are references to seed processing, food prepared from cereals, and large jars that were probably used to store grain. • Some hymns refer to conflicts among people for the protection of sons, grandsons, cattle, water courses, and fertile fields. • Prayers to Indra beseech him to grant or enrich the fields. • This god is described as the protector of crops, winner of fertile fields (urvarajit), and one who showers such fields on those who perform sacrifices to him. • The later parts of the family books invoke Kshetrapati, who seems to have been a guardian deity of agricultural fields. • Wars were fought for cattle, but also for land. • Hymns refer to warriors, priests, cattle rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, and vintners. • The crafts mentioned include chariot-making, cart-making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, the making of bows and bowstrings, sewing, weaving, and making mats out of grass or reeds. • Some of these occupations and crafts may have been the jobs of full-time specialists. • Hymns refer to warriors, priests, cattle rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, and vintners. • The crafts mentioned include chariot-making, cart-making, carpentry, metal working tanning, the making of bows and bowstrings, sewing, weaving, and making mats out of grass or reeds. • Some of these occupations and crafts may have been the jobs of full-time specialists. • There are hardly any references to metallurgical activities in the Rig Veda, and very few of these occur in the family books. • The word ayas occurs in several contexts. • There are references to Indra’s thunderbolt of ayas; the chariot of Mitra and Varuna having columns of ayas; and the home of Indra and Soma made of ayas. • A hymn to Agni compares his splendour to the edge of ayas. • Another hymn to Agni beseeches him to be like a fort of ayas to his worshippers. • A prayer to Indra asks him to sharpen his worshipper’s thought as if it were a blade of ayas. • The family books also refer to the Dasyus’ cities of ayas, forts of ayas, a horse’s jaws of ayas, a vessel of ayas. • Some scholars have interpreted the references to ayas, metal objects, and metallurgical activity in the Rig Veda as indicative of iron artefacts and iron working.