“OLD WINE” AND “NEW WINESKINS”: (DE)COLONIZING LITERACY IN KENYA’S HIGHER EDUCATION Mwangi Chege A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY August 2006 Committee: Bruce L. Edwards, Advisor Patricia Kubow Graduate Faculty Representative Kristine Blair Sue Carter Wood ii © 2006 Mwangi Chege All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Bruce L. Edwards, Advisor Most social critics in the disciplines of Rhetoric and Composition, Education, and Feminist Studies have argued that it is impossible to divorce literacy from politics; that literacy is a hegemonic enterprise. Based on this premise, this study investigated how politics plays out in the discourse patterns in Kenyan universities. Owing to the apparent semblance between colonial and postcolonial literacy policies and acknowledging the historicity of phenomena, the study investigated the role the British colonization of Kenya has played in shaping postcolonial discourse patterns in Kenyan universities--why and how the postcolonial state reproduced the colonial literacy policies. The study concludes by exploring strategies for decolonizing Kenya’s higher education. Based on the data I collected through multiple modes of inquiry including autoethnography; historical and library research; and interviews, it was evident the colonial establishment put in place a literacy system commensurate with its colonial agenda. And, since the agenda of postcolonial regimes was not radically different from that of the colonial establishment and subsequent neocolonial forces, the postcolonial state reproduced colonial literacy policies to entrench and perpetuate their hegemonies. Notably, these regimes suppressed discourse in higher education to curtail dissent and, therefore, ensure perpetuation of the status quo. To decolonize literacy, the study proposes four strategies: stakeholders in Kenya’s higher education, especially educators and students must reconsider the role of the university; educators and students must embrace critical literacy paradigm in place of the iv prevailing functional approach to literacy, educators and students must reconsider their stance on epistemology and ontology; and, universities must introduce comprehensive Rhetoric and Writing courses. v Unto the King Immortal And to my wife Wambui and our children Chege and Wairimu vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The success of this dissertation has been occasioned by the help and support I received from many people. First and foremost, I want to acknowledge Dr. Bruce Edwards not only for the incredible role he has played as the Chair of my dissertation committee but also for his role in my being at Bowling Green State University (BGSU). Had it not been for Bruce, there would not have been this dissertation. Thank you too, Dr. Edwards, for your counsel and mentoring. I also want to acknowledge the collegial support I received from the other members on my dissertation committee. Dr. Kristine Blair, I appreciate your prompt and probing feedback. I also appreciate your encouragement and for providing a shoulder to lean on when the going became too tough. Thank you, Dr. Sue Carter Wood, for your support and encouragement throughout the entire dissertation process especially your willingness to listen to me whenever I knocked on your door. And to you Dr. Patricia Kubow, although you were the Graduate College Faculty Representative, you never sat on the fence. I have benefited immensely from your expertise in the field I have been researching. Thank you for your probing feedback that always pushed me to research more. I also want to acknowledge Dr. Deborah Alvarez who not only introduced me to the field of literacy, but also helped me with conceptualizing my research topic. I cannot forget my brother Ngunyi who paid for my air ticket to Kenya to do this research and my brother Thiong’o who helped coordinate my itinerary in Kenya when I was conducting this research. And to my parents Chege and Wairimu: you taught me to vii love and pursue knowledge. You have been an inspiration to me. Many thanks to you Anne Gachara, my sister in-law, for your prayers and moral support throughout my dissertation process. I also appreciate the cooperation I received from those who accepted to participate in my study, some with very short notice. To you all I say thank you. Thank you also Dr. Muriithi, Orwenjo, and Wanjiru Kuria for accepting to be contact persons during the study. Although I have been studying thousands and thousands of miles away from home, I appreciate the many people who made Bowling Green a second home for me and my family. Foremost, I want to thank Bowling Green State University for funding my studies. Without the funding, completing this Doctoral program would have remained a dream. I also want to thank the congregation of Bowling Covenant Church which has touched us as a family with its genuine love and hospitality. The Church was indeed a home for us away from home. Thank you Ten Brinks, Edwards, Malangas, Baezs, Clarks, Manahans; I wish I could list you all, for ministering to us. I cannot forget you, Eric Stalions, my colleague in the Ph D program for you have been a real comrade in this long and arduous journey. Most importantly, I acknowledge the unwavering support of my wife Wambui. You have been a true companion and anchor during this long journey. I could not have made it without you and so together we have made it. And to you Chege, my beloved son, and Wairimu, my beloved daughter, thank you for your patience and endurance. Above all, I want to thank God for His enduring grace. As I look back and take stock of my dissertation process, I am left with awe. Indeed He is EBENEZER. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER 1. THE POLITICS OF LITERACY………………………………...………. 1 1.0. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..1 1.1. The Politics Literacy in Kenya’s Higher Education. …….…………………………..2 1.2. What is Literacy………………..……………………………………………………..8 1.2.1. The “Great Leap Narrative” or “Great Divide” Approach…….………..….9 1.2.2. The Functional Approach …...…….……………...………………………11 1.2.3. Sociology of Education Approach …..………………………..……….…15 1.2.4. Literacy as Discourse Approach ..................…………………………….. 19 1.2.5. Critical Literacy Approach……..…………….......……………………….22 1.3. Rationale……….……………………………………...…………………………….31 CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY...……...……………….……………………………..36 2.0. Introduction……………..…………………………………………………………...36 2.1. Autoethnography…………………………………………………………………….38 2.2. Historical and Library Research…….…….……………...…………………………39 2.3. Interviews………….………….………………………...………………………….. 41 2.3.1. University Lecturers (Faculty)……….….………….…………………….42 2.3.2. Ex-University Students…..…………….…..…….…..…………………...46 2.4. Procedure……………………………………………………………………………52 2.5. The Instrument………………………………………………………………………53 2.5.1. Questions for Lecturers………………….…………………………………54 ix 2.5.2. Questions for Ex-University Students……………………………………..55 2.6. Data Analysis and Interpretation…………..………………………………………..55 2.7. Themes……………………..…….………………………………………………….60 CHAPTER 3. THE BRITISH COLINIAL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN KENYA…..….61 3.0. Introduction….………………………………………………………………………61 3.1. The British Colonization of Kenya……….…………………………………………61 3.2. Themes………………………………………………………………………………67 3.2.1. The Missionary Factor……………...……………………………………..67 3.2.2. Access……………………………………………………………………..73 3.2.2.1. Racial Segregation……………………………………………….73 3.2.2.2. Political and Religious Affiliation………...…………………….76 3.2.2.3. Economic Class……….…………………………………………78 3.2.2.4. Gender…………………..……………………………………….79 3.2.2.5. Elitism………………………………..………………………….80 3.2.3. Functional Literacy………..….………..…………………………………..81 3. 2.4. Discourse Patterns………….……..………..……………………………..93 3.2.4.1. Morality and Discipline……………..…….……………………..94 3.2.4.2. Attitude Toward Criticism and Agitation…………….………….95 3.2.4.3. Discourse Patterns in the School Environment..……..…………..98 3.2.4.4. Classroom Dynamics………...…………………….……..…….100 3.2.4.5. The Independent School Movement……….….….……………100 3.2.5. Colonial Rhetoric……………………..…...……………………………...105 3.2.5.1. Colonization as a Noble Cause to the Africans………….…….105 x 3.2.5.2. Using African Elites to Propagate Colonial Interests…..............108 3.2.5.3. Discrediting African Political Movements……….…………….111 3.2.6. Language Policy……..………………………………………..………….112 CHAPTER 4. DISCOURSE PATTERNS DURING THE POSTCOLONIAL PERIOD: THE WIDER SOCIETY AND THE WIDER UNIVERSITYSETTING………………115 4.0. Introduction…..…………………………….………………………………………115 4.1. The Role of the University...…….......……………………………………………..116 4.1.1. Policy Makers’ Viewpoint……………………….………………… …...117 4.1.2. The Lecturers’ Viewpoint……….……………….………………………122 4.1.3. Ex-University Students’ Viewpoint…………….………..………………124 4.1.4. Summary……………….…………..…………………………………….126 4.1.4.1. Functional Literacy………..……..….…..….………………….127 4.1.4.2. Dissemination of Knowledge……...…..…..……...……………128 4.1.4.3. Critical Thinking……………………………………………….129 4.1.4.4. Equity…………….………………....……………….................130 4.2. Discourse Patterns in the Wider Society and Wider University setting…………...137 4.2.1. The Wider Society………..…………………...…………………………137 4.2.1.1. Kenyatta’s Regime (1963-1978)………………...……………..138 4.2.1.2. Moi’s Regime (1978-2002)……………...…… ……………….141 4.2.2. The Wider University Setting……………….……..…………………… 142 4.2.2.1. Kenyatta’s Regime…………….…..………...…………………143 4.2.2.2. Moi’s Regime……………………..……………………………144 4.2.2.3. Kibaki’s Regime (2002 to-date)……..……….….….….………152 xi 4.3. Rhetoric………………….….…………………..……………...…………….…….154