“Often I Feel We Victimize the Victim More Than the Suspect Does”: Examining Officer Attitudes Toward Sexual Assault Complainants by Eryn Nicole O’Neal A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved November 2015 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Cassia Spohn, Chair Kristy Holtfreter Cody Telep ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY December 2015 ABSTRACT The purpose of this project is to better understand police perceptions of sexual assault complainants by assessing their likelihood of questioning a complainant’s credibility and by examining police attitudes toward victims of sexual assault. To advance understanding of these issues, this dissertation (1) expands upon prior research by drawing on a sample of officers from one of the largest metropolitan police departments in the United States and, (2) through the use of framing theory, contributes to the literature by focusing on the attitudes of police toward sexual assault complainants and how these beliefs are shaped by day-to-day experiences. This dissertation investigates two research questions using a mixed-methods approach. The data come from 400 sexual assault complaints that were reported to the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) and 52 LAPD detective interviews. I quantitatively examine the factors that influence officer perceptions of complainant credibility, focusing on indicators of “real rape,” “genuine” victims, “inappropriate” victim behavior, and “character flaws.” I contextualize this work by examining police attitudes toward sexual assault victims using qualitative data taken from interviews of sex crimes detectives. This research contributes to the broader case processing literature by focusing on victim credibility, a factor consistently found to influence case processing decisions. Moreover, this study contributes to research on the frames officers assign to women who report sexual assault. Analyses from the quantitative portion of the study confirm that indicators of “real rape,” and complainant “character issues” were key explanatory factors influencing credibility assessments. Regarding qualitative results, three sexual assault victim frames i were identified. These frames include depictions of victims as they relate to: (a) the suspect/victim relationship, (b) problematic victim behavior, and (c) age. These three frames indicate that certain types of victims are viewed as problematic. This dissertation contributes to three broad bodies of literature: law enforcement decision making, law enforcement perceptions of sexual assault victims, and framing theory. This dissertation was able to tap into officer attitudes to shed light on the ways officers treat women who come forward to report sexual assault, providing valuable insight into officer attitudes, credibility assessments, and victim framing. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank my mentor and dissertation chair, Cassia Spohn. She has provided invaluable mentorship over the past five years including encouraging me to pursue a master’s degree and a doctoral degree. Indeed, this dissertation would not be written without her guidance and continued support; I am forever grateful for her encouragement. I am lucky to call her my mentor and friend. She is my academic hero. I would also like to extend many thanks to the professors who provided vital insights on this research. My committee members, Kristy Holtfreter and Cody Telep, provided instrumental feedback on this work. Also, I would like to thank Mike Reisig for his helpful feedback on earlier drafts of the quantitative component of this dissertation. Additionally, I would be remiss to not thank Scott Decker, who encouraged me to move to Arizona a summer prior to my first year to work on my first research manuscript. I still cannot believe that my initial effort into academic publishing was under the guidance of both Scott Decker and Cassia Spohn. Special thanks must also be extended to Katharine Tellis, my undergraduate and master’s mentor. As an undergraduate I wanted to be just like her. She has influenced my academic trajectory in ways I never expected. Finally, I would like to thank my community college newspaper advisor, Margaret O’Neil. I will be successful in life if I work half as hard as she does. I am also thankful to my partner of more than a decade, David Mounts. He has provided steadfast support over the past 11 years. He has consistently been in my corner; certainly, I would not have completed this dissertation without his encouragement, support, and mandated recharging trips to the Sierras. Some of my best memories of iii graduate school include working on my dissertation in Lone Pine motels while anxiously awaiting our early morning departures to the summits of Mt. Whitney, Mt. Langley, and White Mountain. I am grateful for his ability to keep me motivated—both at my desk and at 14,000 feet. I would also like to thank my parents, Reiny and Kevin Gelsinger, and Chelene and Kirc O’Neal. First-generation college students are often viewed as succeeding despite their parents; however, I know that my parents were key factors in my success. My writing and critical thinking skills were developed and honed at the dinner tables of my childhood homes. I can still hear my mother’s famous post-homework feedback, “This is good Eryn…but how can you make it better?” Also, my admittance into graduate school is partly due to my stepmother’s high academic expectations throughout my primary and secondary education (which I met in efforts of avoiding grounding). My insatiable appetite for intellectual stimulation is undoubtedly a product of being my father’s daughter. Indeed, my early publishing success is a result of our shared desire to stay busy and productive. Finally, thank goodness for my stepfather. Much of my sanity in graduate school was a product of him teaching me to not take myself so seriously. I would have never survived doctoral school without this sage advice (although I was known to ignore it from time to time). I want to thank my colleagues, friends, and yoga teachers. I would have not survived doctoral school without my fellow graduate students, Laura Beckman (especially), Kimberly Kaiser, Megan Parry, Kate Kempany, Chriss Galvin-White, and Rick Moule. I have learned so much from all of them. Also, love and thanks must be extended to by best friend, Kirsten Gelber. When I doubted my ability to finish my iv education, she always reminded me that I could. Her support was always felt despite our geographical distance. Finally, I want to thank all my yoga teachers, especially David and Cheryl Oliver, Tim Cothron, Rachel Grayczyk, Cindy Hrnicek, Nicole Eber, and Marcy Johnson. Thank you for keep me grounded during the three most intense years of my life. Last—but certainly not least—I must thank my sister, Brianna Gelsinger. When she found out that I was moving to Arizona, she quickly decided to venture into the desert with me. I know my transition from a Los Angelinos to Phoenician was easier because she was by my side. This dissertation is dedicated to my two youngest sisters, Danielle and Kelli Gelsinger. Watching them navigate the world over the past two decades has brought me unmeasurable joy. Words cannot express how proud I am of their scholarly and sports- related accomplishments. Danielle’s dedication to overachievement and Kelli’s fearless journey into higher education have inspired me to finish this dissertation in ways that I did not anticipate. I look forward to seeing them both make their marks on the world. This dissertation was made possible through a National Institute of Justice (2009- WG-BX-009) grant awarded to Dr. Cassia Spohn of Arizona State University and Dr. Katharine Tellis of California State University, Los Angeles. This dissertation reflects the opinions and recommendations of the author and does not represent the official positions or policies of the United States Department of Justice. I would like to express my gratitude to the Los Angeles Police Department. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. ix LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................x CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1 The “Rape Culture” Perspective of Larger Societal Beliefs ...............................3 Rape Myths and Police Work .............................................................................7 Theoretical Considerations: Framing Theory .....................................................9 Research Purpose and Significance: Framing Theory and Officer Attitudes ...11 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ......14 Understanding Violence against Women using a Social Ecological Model.....16 The Rape Culture ..............................................................................................26 Organizational Theories and Organizations .....................................................32 The Police Organization, Officer Attitudes, and Decision Making in Sexual Assault Cases ................................................................................................52 Framing Theory ...............................................................................................61 Synthesis and Current Research........................................................................66