A FORGOTTEN BORDERLAND: THE UPPER TIGRIS BETWEEN SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS AND ANASTASIUS I A Master’s Thesis by LEYLA YORULMAZ Department Of Archaeology Ihsan Doğramacı Bilkent University Ankara January 2014 To my family A FORGOTTEN BORDERLAND: THE UPPER TIGRIS BETWEEN SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS AND ANASTASIUS I The Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences of İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University by LEYLA YORULMAZ In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Of MASTER OF ARTS in THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY IHSAN DOĞRAMACI BILKENT UNIVERSITY ANKARA January 2014 I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Archaeology. --------------------------------- Dr. Julian Bennett Supervisor I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Archaeology. --------------------------------- Dr. Jacques Morin Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Archaeology. --------------------------------- Dr. Ergün Laflı Examining Committee Member Approval of the Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences --------------------------------- Dr. Erdal Erel Director ABSTRACT A FORGOTTEN BORDERLAND: THE UPPER TIGRIS BETWEEN SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS AND ANASTASIUS I Yorulmaz, Leyla M.A., Department of Archaeology Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Dr. Julian Bennett January 2014 The archaeology and history of the Roman centres in the southeastern Anatolia has been a subject that has been generally neglected by modern scholarship. In this thesis I hope to help fill this major gap in scholarship. In general, the thesis critically examines the known history and recent archaeological identity of the Upper Tigris Basin from the reign of the emperor Septimius Severus to that of Anastasius I. It is based on a detailed analysis of the primary and secondary sources for the historical geography of the region and the results of surveys and salvage excavations that have mostly been obtained in connection with the Ilısu dam project. As such, it sheds light on current thinking and the available evidence on how the Romans considered and viewed the Tigris as an eastern borderland and in this way achieves a better understanding of the character and the nature of Roman military and diplomatic strategy on the Upper Tigris and the concomitant border region. iii Keywords: The southeastern Anatolia, the Upper Tigris Basin, Septimius Severus, Anastasius I, Ilısu dam project, borderland, the Tigris, Roman military and diplomatic strategy. iv ÖZET UNUTULMUŞ SINIR: SEPTİMİUS SEVERUS’ TAN ANASTASİUS I DÖNEMİNE KADAR YUKARI DİCLE BÖLGESİ Yorulmaz, Leyla Yüksek Lisans, Arkeoloji Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Yard. Doç. Dr. Julian Bennett Ocak 2014 Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi’nde yer alan Roma merkezlerinin arkeolojik ve tarihsel gelişimi genellikle çağdaş bilim dünyası tarafından göz ardı edilen bir konu olmuştur. Bu tezle bilim dünyasındaki bu temel boşluğu doldurmaya katkıda bulunacağımı umuyorum. Bu tez genel olarak, imparator Septimius Severus’ tan Anastasius I dönemine kadarki süreçte Yukarı Dicle Havzası’nın bilinen tarihi geçmişini ve yakın dönemde kazandığı arkeolojik kimliğini incelemektedir. Bölgenin tarihsel coğrafyası için ana kaynakların ve ikincil yazınların detaylı analizlerine ve son dönemde çoğunlukla Ilısu baraj projesi kapsamında yürütülen yüzey araştırmaları ve kurtarma kazılarından elde edilen verilere dayanmaktadır. Böylece, Romalıların Dicle’yi bir doğu sınırı olarak nasıl değerlendirdiklerine dair düşünce yapısına ve yararlanılabilir bilimsel verilere ışık tutmakta ve bu yolla da Yukarı Dicle ve v beraberindeki sınır bölgesinde mevcut olan Roma askeri ve diplomatik stratejisinin karakter ve yapısını daha iyi anlamamızı sağlamaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi, Yukarı Dicle Havzası, Septimius Severus, Anastasius I, Ilısu Baraj Projesi, sınır, Roma askeri ve diplomatik stratejisi. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to gratefully thank my Thesis Supervisor Dr. Julian Bennett, whose generous advice and unwavering encouragement allowed me to complete this thesis. He constantly maintained a positive outlook, believed in me even when I seriously doubted myself, and provided critical direction as my thesis evolved. I am also grateful to my examining committee members Dr. Jacques Morin and Ergün Laflı who also contributed valuable advice which improved my thesis. I also have to acknowledge Dr. Charles Gates who has always supported me in achieving my educational goals and who readily accepted my desire to research and investigate a subject which was at first new to me. I am also grateful to the members of our department for their inspiring lectures and conversations which have been quite useful to improve my accumulation of knowledge. I am indebted to my friends Ayşen Girit, Özlem Günay, Meryem Demir, Egemen Şener, Humberto De Luigi, Bahattin İpek and Burak Arcan whose support and friendship were undeniably the bedrock upon which I have spent the past four years of my life. I especially owe much to Humberto who has been a great rock of support. Whenever I doubted myself he advised me, encouraged me and never gave up helping me even when I came up with too many ridiculous questions. vii Last but not the least, I would like to thank my dear sister, Derya, whose support, encouragement, and unwavering love make me feel stronger. Thank you for believing in me and for all sacrifices you have endured despite all the problems you have been through. Also I am exceedingly grateful to every single member of my family whose patience and understanding brought me to where I am today. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT…….…………………………………………………………………….. iii ÖZET………………………………………………………………………………….. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………….. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………...... ix LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………….……. xii ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………….… xvi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………... 1 1.1 Rome and Persia before Late Antiquity: An Overview…………………………… 2 1.2 The Present State of Research into the Region……………………………………. 6 CHAPTER 2: THE GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT OF THE MIDDLE TIGRIS BASIN AND TUR ABDIN REGION……………………… 11 2.1 The Upper Tigris Basin………………………………………………………...… 11 2.2 The Tur Abdin………………………………………………………………….… 12 2.3 The Major Cities of the Region……………………………………………...…… 13 2.3.1 Amida (modern Diyarbakır) …………………………………………… 14 2.3.2 Maipa/Martyropolis/Ioustinianopolis (modern Silvan)...………….…… 15 2.3.3 Arzan/Erzen…………………………………………………………...... 16 2.3.4 Cepha/Cephas (modern Hasankeyf)……………………………………. 16 2.4 Secondary Centres of the Region and the Trade Routes…………………………. 17 ix 2.4.1 Eğil…………………...………………………………………………… 18 2.4.2 Bezabde (modern Eski Hendek)……………………………………...… 18 2.4.3 Nisibis (modern Nusaybin?)………………..………………………….. 19 2.4.4 Dara…………………………………………………………………….. 21 2.5 The Ancient Territories between the Middle Euphrates and the Middle Tigris….. 21 2.5.1 Osrhoene………………………………………………………….…..... 21 2.5.2 Upper Mesopotamia……………………………………………….….... 22 2.5.3 Sophanene and Arzanene………………………………………………. 23 CHAPTER 3: THE CREATION AND HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE TIGRIS FRONTIER…………………………………………………………... 24 3.1 The Rise of the Sassanians and the Region during the First Half of the Third Century…………………………………………………………………………… 25 3.2 The Second Half of the Third Century……………………………………….…... 28 3.3 The Fourth Century………………………………………………………………. 34 3.4 Anastasius: a Measured Approach to the Frontier Policy………………………... 40 CHAPTER 4: THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE………………………….… 42 4.1 The Archaeological Surveys and Excavations in the Area…………………….… 43 4.1.1 The Tigris-Euphrates Archaeological Reconnaissance Project ……….. 43 4.1.1.1 Çattepe (Tilli/Tell Fafan)…………………………………..… 45 4.1.1.2 Eski Hendek (Bezabde?)…………………………...……….… 48 4.1.1.3 Üçtepe (Charcha/Arcaiapis’)....……………………………… 49 4.1.2 The Upper Tigris Archaeological Research Project (UTARP)…..…….. 50 4.1.3 The Excavations of the Cathedral complex at Nusaybin (Nisibis?)……. 51 4.1.4 The Salvage Project of the Archaeological Heritage of the Ilısu and Carchemish Dam Reservoirs (1998-2008) …………………………..… 53 x 4.1.4.1 Hasankeyf (Cepha/Cephas)………………………………...… 53 4.1.4.2 Ziyaret Tepe (Diyarbakır)………………………………….… 55 4.1.4.3 Salat Tepe (Diyarbakır)……………………………………… 55 4.1.5 Other Excavations Connected with the Dam Construction that Have Produced Roman Material……………………………………………… 56 4.1.5.1 Kuriki Höyük (Batman)………………………………….…… 56 4.1.5.2 Gre Abdurrahman Höyük (Diyarbakır)……………………… 57 4.1.5.3. Ilısu Höyük (Mardin)………………………………………… 57 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION…………………………………………………..…… 59 5.1 Definition and Function…………………………………………………..……… 59 5.2 The Formation of the Frontier…….……………………………………………… 61 5.3 Issues Arising…………………………………………………………………..… 63 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………. 70 FIGURES……………………………………………………………………..……… 87 xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Comfort’s view of the frontier after 363…………………………………… 88 Figure 2: Roman provinces of Osrhoene and Mesopotamia…………………………. 89 Figure 3: Modern towns and cities in the Upper Tigris Basin……….………………. 90 Figure 4: Northern Mesopotamia…………………………………………………….. 91 Figure 5: The Tigris-Euphrates Archaeological Reconnaissance Project survey areas in southeastern Turkey, northern Syria, and northern Iraq………………………………………………………..…