A Grammar of the Dom Language A Papuan Language of Papua New Guinea TIDA Syuntaroˆ i Table of Contents Acknowledgements xiii Abbreviations xv Maps xvii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Geographical and demographic background . 1 1.2 Socio-linguistic setting . 1 1.2.1 Tribes and clans . 3 1.2.2 Names and Naming . 4 1.3 Linguistic background . 5 1.3.1 Genetic relationships . 5 1.3.2 Typological profile . 6 1.3.3 Papuan context . 7 1.4 Previous work . 7 1.5 Present study . 8 Chapter 2 Phonology 9 2.1 Vowels . 9 2.1.1 Minimal pairs . 9 2.1.2 Lengthening . 9 2.1.3 /e/ . 9 2.1.4 [1] and /i/ insertion . 10 2.1.5 /i/ . 11 2.1.6 /o/ . 11 2.1.7 /u/ . 12 2.1.8 /a/ . 12 2.1.9 Sequence of vowels . 12 2.2 Consonants . 13 2.2.1 Minimal pairs . 13 2.2.2 Prenasalisation and gemination . 13 2.2.3 Obstruents . 14 2.2.3.1 /p/ . 14 2.2.3.2 /b/ . 14 2.2.3.3 /k/ . 14 2.2.3.4 /g/ . 14 ii Table of Contents 2.2.3.5 /t/ . 15 2.2.3.6 /d/ . 15 2.2.3.7 /s/ . 15 2.2.3.8 /r/ . 15 2.2.3.9 /l/ and /L/........................... 16 2.2.3.10 /s/, /t/ and /l/ . 17 2.2.3.11 /c/ and /j/ . 18 2.2.4 Nasals . 19 2.2.4.1 /n/ . 19 2.2.4.2 /m/ . 19 2.2.5 Approximants . 19 2.2.5.1 /y/ . 19 2.2.5.2 /w/ . 19 2.2.6 Sonorant assimilation . 20 2.2.7 Metathesis . 20 2.3 Syllable structure and phonotactics . 21 2.3.1 Syllable structure . 21 2.3.2 Syllabification . 22 2.3.3 Phonotactics . 23 2.4 Tones . 23 2.4.1 The way tones contrast . 23 2.4.1.1 Observed pitch patterns . 23 2.4.1.1.1 Monosyllabic words . 23 2.4.1.1.2 Disyllabic words . 24 2.4.1.1.3 Trisyllabic words . 26 2.4.1.2 Pitch assignment . 26 2.4.2 Tone and intonation . 30 2.4.3 Unspecified pitch value . 30 2.4.4 Is pitch in Dom `genuine' tone? . 31 2.4.5 Clitic-type tone . 33 2.4.6 Tone of loanwords . 36 2.4.7 Suffixes and tone . 37 2.4.7.1 The tones of nouns and suffixes . 37 2.4.7.2 The tones of verbs and their conjugation . 37 2.4.8 Word and tonal domain . 38 2.4.8.1 Reduplication . 38 2.4.8.2 Verbs . 39 2.4.8.3 Non-verbs . 40 2.4.9 Summary and conclusion . 41 Chapter 3 Word classes 43 3.1 Overview of word classes . 43 3.2 Nouns . 44 3.2.1 Inalienably possessed nouns . 44 3.2.2 Pronouns . 44 3.2.3 Locative nouns . 47 Table of Contents iii 3.2.3.1 Independent locatives . 47 3.2.3.2 Relative locus . 47 3.2.3.3 Bases for deictics . 48 3.2.4 Time nouns . 49 3.2.5 Verbal nouns . 51 3.2.6 Adverbial nouns . 53 3.2.7 Question words . 54 3.3 Verbs . 54 3.4 Adjectives . 57 3.4.1 Colour terms . 58 3.4.2 Quantifiers . 58 3.4.3 Demonstratives . 60 3.4.4 Intensifiers . 60 3.5 Adverbs . 63 3.6 Interjections . 63 3.6.1 Responses . 63 3.6.2 Interjections for calls, shoos and calling attention: . 65 3.6.3 Others . 65 3.7 Postpositions . 65 3.7.1 Comitative . 65 3.7.2 Instrumental ¿Ďpal ............................ 66 Ă 3.7.3 Manner =¿ mere . 66 Ă 3.7.4 Locative=¿ la .............................. 67 3.8 Particles . 67 3.8.1 Direction . 67 3.8.2 Temporary substitution . 68 3.8.3 `With all one's might' particle . 69 3.8.4 Focus markers . 69 Ă 3.8.5 Adverbialiser =¿ d ........................... 70 3.8.6 Negative =¿Ĺkl .............................. 71 3.8.7 Abrupt imperative =¿Ďka ........................ 71 3.8.8 Polar questions with non-verbal predicate =¿Ďyo ............ 71 3.8.9 Phrase-final =¿Ďwe ........................... 71 3.8.10 Clause-final =¿Ďua»=(¿Ď)wa ....................... 72 3.8.11 Explicative . 74 3.8.12 Conjunctions . 75 3.8.12.1 Sequential =¿Ĺpare, =¿Ĺkene ................. 75 3.8.12.2 Concessive ¿Ďkore ...................... 75 3.8.12.3 Adversative =¿Ďba ...................... 75 3.8.12.4 Conjunction for nominals =¿Ďya ............... 76 3.8.12.5 Dubitative =¿Ďmo ....................... 77 Chapter 4 Morphology 79 4.1 Morphology of verbs . 79 4.1.1 Verb structure . 79 4.1.2 Variation in conjugation patterns and classes of verb stems . 79 iv Table of Contents 4.1.2.1 Classes of verbs based on inflection patterns . 81 4.1.2.1.1 The high-tone class . 81 4.1.2.1.2 The falling-tone r class . 82 4.1.2.1.3 The falling-tone l class . 82 4.1.2.1.4 The rising-tone class . 83 4.1.2.1.5 Other classes . 84 4.1.3 Tense . 84 4.1.4 Person-number . 85 4.1.5 Mood . ..