Inscribing Interaction: Middle Woodland Monumentality in the Appalachian Summit, 100 BC – AD 400 by Alice P. Wright A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Anthropology) in the University of Michigan 2014 Doctoral Committee: Assistant Professor Robin A. Beck, Chair Professor Joyce Marcus Associate Professor Michael Witgen Professor Henry T. Wright UMI Number: 3619715 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI 3619715 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 © Alice P. Wright 2014 For Rita and the Legend ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS After compiling nine chapters, five appendices, and a slew of references, I thought I’d be ready to step away from the keyboard. But then, I realized there was one last piece of the dissertation puzzle to get on the page before this project could be complete: the acknowledgements. In fact, I’ve been looking forward to writing my acknowledgements since I began this sometimes challenging, always entertaining project in 2010. The handful of pages to follow are an opportunity to relive this journey, and to thank those who contributed to different steps along the way. First, thank you to my dissertation committee. Even before I enrolled at the University of Michigan, Joyce Marcus was a ceaseless spring of encouragement; nearly eight years later, I continue to appreciate her support, her comparative perspectives, and her keen eye for editing. Henry Wright is to blame (in a good way) for my side step into southern Appalachian archaeology. For his Archaeology II class, I wrote a paper about Appalachian Hopewell; he commented that it was not a great paper (true), but that it seemed like a topic I was really interested in, and that I should pursue it. Michael Witgen’s work on historic interactions in Native North America opened my eyes to entirely new ways of thinking about pre-historic interactions in Native North America, and promise to shape the directions of my future research. And finally, my dissertation chair Rob Beck has been, for lack of a more elegant term, awesome. Whether suggesting that I revisit Garden Creek in the first place, pushing me to write up my results for publication, or giving me room to experiment with different theoretical and methodological approaches, Rob’s guidance has fueled my curiosity and driven me to become a better scholar. In and outside the classroom, Rob leads by example – his enthusiasm about Southeastern archaeology is infectious. As I prepare to move on from the Museum of Anthropology, I am already looking forward to our annual reunions at SEAC, where we can talk shop (and smack) over a few beers. I have been fortunate to count several other scholars among my on-campus mentors. Paul Thacker, at Wake Forest University, made possible some of my earliest forays into archaeology. I am iii immensely grateful for the opportunities he encouraged me to pursue, from field school in Portugal, to follow up field work, to analysis in the lab. My undergraduate experience at Wake Forest was also tremendously impacted by two professors of English, Jefferson Holdridge and Gillian Overing, who coached my writing and let me play at the intersections of anthropology and the humanities. At Michigan, my scholarship has benefitted from coursework with Bob Whallon, Carla Sinopoli, and John O’Shea. Beyond the classroom, conversations with John Speth and Lisa Young were a regular source of enjoyment and inspiration; I look forward to continuing these conversations during future rock-hounding expeditions to the North Carolina mountains. The earliest stages of my research at Garden Creek involved several weeks of collection research at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. This work was facilitated by Steve Davis and Vincas Steponaitis at the Research Laboratories of Archaeology. I must also thank Margie Scarry and her students at RLA for completing the flotation and macrobotanical analyses of Garden Creek samples; having excavated those clayey soils, I appreciate what a slog that must have been! None of my research at RLA would have been possible if not for the work and generosity of Bennie Keel. Bennie excavated Garden Creek Mound No. 2 in the 1960s, and has been wonderfully supportive as I returned to the materials he excavated and the records he compiled. The detailed notes and maps are an inspiration to a 21st century archaeologist, and will undoubtedly be a source of future archaeological inquiry long after I finish my project at Garden Creek. Thank you, Bennie, for your encouragement and insight; I could not have done this project without you. Neither could I have done this project without Scott Ashcraft of Pisgah National Forest. Scott let me tag along on various Forest Service projects in 2009, and since then, he has opened more doors for me than I can count, including my first introduction to landowners at Garden Creek. I love working with Scott: he is a wealth of knowledge about western North Carolina archaeology; he knows the fine art of “slow talking” with locals; and he is, frankly, a ridiculous and wonderful human being. I am so excited to be able to continue working with him in the future. I also look forward to future work with Rodney Snedeker, also of the National Forests of North Carolina, whose support has also been an incredible boon as I have explored Appalachian archaeology. My immersion into western North Carolina archaeology has also benefitted tremendously from one of the loveliest communities of local archaeologists on the planet. Thanks to David Moore, for sharing equipment and being initially skeptical about the squircles (it was motivation to excavate very carefully!); Linda Hall for intel regarding novel cord marked sherds; Jane Eastman for conversations about Middle Woodland pottery; Larry Kimball and Tom Whyte for conversations iv about Appalachian Hopewell; Tasha Benyshek for inter-site data sharing; Ben Steere for big ideas about mounds; and Chris Rodning and Bret Riggs for support and encouragement. Thanks, too, to archaeology colleagues with the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, especially Beau Carroll and Russ Townsend, with whom I am excited to collaborate in the coming years. The wider constituency of the Southeastern Archaeological Conference has been an additional source of inspiring mentors, in particular Dave Anderson, Jim Brown, Victor Thompson, Maureen Meyers, and Scot Keith; and, slightly beyond SEAC and into the greater Eastern Woodlands, Bret Ruby and Jarrod Burks. I must reserve a special acknowledgment for Sarah Sherwood. Since we met in Romania (of all places) in 2008, Sarah has shown me by example how to get it done in Southeastern archaeology. Sarah’s brand of no nonsense advice and endless encouragement motivate me to work hard, take pride in my work, and to pursue full-fledged collaborations with archaeological experts in order to get the best possible result. I aspire to be the sort of mentor that Sarah has been to me. SEAC is also the source of some of my most treasured archaeological friendships. Over the years, I have been equally inspired and delighted by Eddie Henry, Shane Miller, Meg Kassabaum, Lydia Carmody, Stephen Carmody, David Cranford, Jayur Mehta, and Jera Davis. Some of these folks helped with fieldwork at Garden Creek; others wrestled ideas with me in sessions and over beers at the annual meeting; others have given me boatloads to think about as we collectively blog our worries away (and/or create new ones) at SEAC Underground. They all make me laugh. I am humbled and motivated to be coming along with such a fantastic cohort of southeastern archaeologists. In recent years, the University of Michigan has had its own posse of Southeasternists that I have been privileged to call friends and colleagues. Casey Barrier, Ashely Schubert, Christina Perry Sampson, and Travis Williams: there are no words. I have had the absolute best time sharing a lab with you over the last seven years, whether or not we ever got down to work. I have had the absolute best time working in the field with you, in Michigan, North Carolina, Illinois, wherever. I have had the absolute best time whenever someone said “gee!” or saw a small circle or invested in a collapsible hammock. In short – you all are the absolute best. I will miss you terribly, and take consolation in the promise of annual SEAC shenanigans. Though not technically a Southeasternist, this is as good a place as any to extend my gratitude to Tim Horsley, honorary Eastern North America Ranger. Tim’s expertise in archaeological geophysics, generosity with time and energy, and phenomenal dance moves have earned him a permanent place in our Southeast posse. v My time at UMMA was also enriched by conversations with folks doing research on other times and places. Special thanks must go to my rock-and-roll cohort, Colin Quinn, Anne Compton, and the aforementioned Casey, plus honorary cohort-mates Ryan Hughes, Tom Landvatter, and Charlotte Maxwell-Jones; Howard “Amigo” Tsai, Veronique Belisle, Amanda Logan, Andy Gurstelle, Lacey Carpenter, Jess Beck, Dan Diffendale, Uthara Suvrathan, Khori Newlander, Matt Kroot, and Amy Nicodemus. My “Michigan family” was completed several folks outside the Museum, especially Dave Pappano, Robin Nelson, Emily McKee, Caroline Vansickle, Kristen Munnelly, Jason De Leon, Abby Bigham, and Sarah Mulberry, while long-time friends Cameron Dupuis, Sarah Dunham, and Meg Irby provided support from further afield.