Martial Arts of the World An Encyclopedia Volume Two: R–Z Edited by Thomas A. Green Santa Barbara, California Denver, Colorado Oxford, England Copyright © 2001 by Thomas A. Green All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Martial arts of the world: an encyclopedia / [edited] by Thomas A. Green. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-57607-150-2 (hardcover: alk. paper); 1-57607-556-7 (ebook) 1. Martial arts—Encyclopedias. I. Green, Thomas A., 1944– GV1101.M29 2001 796.8'03—dc21 2001002823 06 05 04 03 02 01 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an e-book. Visit abc-clio.com for details. ABC-CLIO, Inc. 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper I. Manufactured in the United States of America Contents A Note on Romanization, ix Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia Volume 1: A–Q Martial Arts, 119 Africa and African America, 1 Aikidô, 12 Folklore in the Martial Arts, 123 Animal and Imitative Systems Form/Xing/Kata/Pattern Practice, in Chinese Martial Arts, 16 135 Archery, Japanese, 18 Gladiators, 141 Baguazhang (Pa Kua Ch’uan), Gunfighters, 149 23 Boxing, Chinese, 26 Hapkidô, 157 Boxing, Chinese Shaolin Styles, 32 Heralds, 162 Boxing, European, 44 Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, 52 Iaidô, 169 Budô, Bujutsu, and Bugei, 56 India, 173 Capoeira, 61 Japan, 179 China, 65 Chivalry, 72 Japanese Martial Arts, Chinese Combatives: Military and 83 Influences on, 199 Police Martial Art Training, 000 Jeet Kune Do, 202 Jûdô, 210 Dueling, 97 Kajukenbo, 219 Europe, 109 Kalarippayattu, 225 External vs. Internal Chinese Karate, Japanese, 232 v Karate, Okinawan, 240 Religion and Spiritual Development: Kendô, 249 India, 462 Kenpô, 255 Religion and Spiritual Development: Ki/Qi, 260 Japan, 472 Knights, 263 Kobudô, Okinawan, 286 Sambo, 507 Korea, 291 Samurai, 514 Korean Martial Arts, Chinese Savate, 519 Influences on, 299 Silat, 524 Koryû Bugei, Japanese, 301 Social Uses of the Martial Krav Maga, 306 Arts, 532 Kung Fu/Gungfu/Gongfu, 313 Southeast Asia, 538 Stage Combat, 551 Masters of Defence, 317 Stickfighting, Non-Asian, 556 Medicine, Traditional Chinese, 327 Sword, Japanese, 564 Meditation, 335 Swordsmanship, European Middle East, 338 Medieval, 570 Mongolia, 344 Swordsmanship, European Muay Thai, 350 Renaissance, 579 Swordsmanship, Japanese, 588 Ninjutsu, 355 Swordsmanship, Korean/Hankuk Haedong Kumdô, 597 Okinawa, 363 Orders of Knighthood, T’aek’kyo˘n, 603 Religious, 368 Taekwondo, 608 Orders of Knighthood, Taijiquan (Tai Chi Ch’uan), 617 Secular, 384 Thaing, 629 Thang-Ta, 637 Pacific Islands, 403 Training Area, 643 Pankration, 410 Performing Arts, 417 Varma Ati, 647 Philippines, 422 Vovinam/Viet Vo Dao, 651 Political Conflict and the Martial Arts, 435 Warrior Monks, Japanese/Sôhei, 659 Women in the Martial Arts, 664 Volume 2: R–Z Women in the Martial Arts: Britain Rank, 445 and North America, 684 Religion and Spiritual Development: Women in the Martial Arts: Ancient Mediterranean and China, 689 Medieval West, 447 Women in the Martial Arts: Religion and Spiritual Development: Japan, 692 China, 455 Wrestling and Grappling: China, 705 vi Contents Wrestling and Grappling: Written Texts: India, 749 Europe, 710 Written Texts: Japan, 758 Wrestling and Grappling: India, 719 Wrestling and Grappling: Japan, 727 Xingyiquan (Hsing I Wrestling, Professional, 735 Ch’uan), 775 Written Texts: China, 745 Yongchun/Wing Chun, 781 Chronological History of the Martial Arts, 787 Index, 839 About the Author, 895 Contents vii A Note on Romanization In 1979, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) decided to employ the pinyin sys- tem of romanization for foreign publications. The pinyin system is now recog- nized internationally. As a result, the pinyin system is the preferred method in the present volume. Prior to this decision by the PRC, the Wade-Giles system had gained wide international acceptance. Certain terms, therefore, may appear un- der spellings unfamiliar to the reader. For example, Wade-Giles Hsing I Ch’uan or Hsing I Chuan appears as pinyin Xingyiquan, and Wing Chun is romanized as Yongchun. Pinyin spellings will be used in most cases. Old spellings, often un- systematic, are given in parentheses, for example Li Cunyi (Li Tsun-I). For those terms that are well established in another spelling, pinyin is noted in parentheses for consistency; for example, Pangai Noon (pinyin banyingruan). For Chinese names and terms that are not associated with the PRC, we have chosen to fol- low locally preferred romanizations. ix R Rank The word rank in this context refers to a system of hierarchies in martial arts based on various criteria such as physical fitness, mastery of curricu- lum, success in competition, length of time of study, and contributions to the system. Traditions differ as to the reasons for awarding rank and the ways in which rank is bestowed. Although in contemporary martial arts rank is commonly associated with the belt systems of the Asian arts, the practice of ranking practitioners of martial arts is not uniquely Asian. In 1540, Henry VIII of England granted letters of patent that formally enfranchised the English Masters of Defence (who previously had plied their trade with- out benefit of licensing) and at least tacitly gave the royal stamp of ap- proval to a four-tiered hierarchy based on the model of the medieval uni- versity: scholar, free scholar, provost, and master. The Masters of Defence then fixed requirements for testing for rank, length of time required for ap- prenticeship at each rank, and other criteria deemed necessary for formally establishing the hierarchy. Until the twentieth century, many Asian martial arts recognized only two tiers of rank: master and student. Occasionally, the designation of se- nior student could be extended as well. This system continues in some arts. The traditional systems of China (e.g., taijiquan [tai chi ch’uan], baguazhang [pa kua ch’uan]) have not formalized ranking further than this. The many conservative bugei (Japanese; warrior arts)—those arts des- ignated by the suffix jutsu (skills), such as kenjutsu—of Japan have main- tained the traditional means of ranking members (generally unique to the individual system) of each ryûha (style) into the contemporary period. Kanô Jigorô, in establishing jûdô in the late nineteenth century, de- veloped for students of his art a ranking system by means of the awarding of colored belts worn with practice uniforms. This tradition had a pro- found impact on the martial arts world, first via adoption of the system by the budô (martial ways) of Japan and then internationally, as both indige- 445 nous fighting systems and eclectic mar- tial arts of other cultures followed suit. In Kanô’s system and others based on it (e.g., karate, taekwondo), distinctions are made between lower levels (kyû [class] in Japanese systems—e.g., nikyû, meaning “second class”), who wear col- ored belts (e.g., green, brown) to signify rank, and upper levels (dan [grade]— e.g., shôdan, meaning “first grade”), who wear black belts. In the kyûs there is considerable variation in belt color from system to system, as well as vary- ing interpretations of the symbolic meanings of the various belt colors. In the Japanese model and systems derived from it, progress is denoted by descend- ing order through the classes (signified by white or colored belts). Therefore, sankyû (third class) is lower in rank than nikyû (second class), for example. The grades (signified by a black belt) denote rank through ascending order from shôdan (first grade) to nidan (sec- ond grade) and so forth. It is common Taekwondo students wear colored belts to promote through the first ranks of the black belt level on the basis of to indicate their proficiency in the art; fifth grade is often regarded as the apex for promo- rank within the system, Darjeeling, tion on technical skills. Thereafter, however, promotions in grade are based India. (Earl & on contributions to the art. Commonly, the highest grades of an art are be- Nazima Kowali/ Corbis) stowed on a teacher by students in recognition of self-mastery, creation or development of the system, or similar unique contributions. Most contemporary styles that have followed the Japanese lead in in- dicating rank by color do so by means of the method put forth by Kanô, by the color of a flat cloth belt worn looped around the waist on the out- side of the practitioner’s jacket. There are exceptions, however. In the Re- gional system of Brazilian capoeira developed by Manoel dos Reis Machado in the 1930s, rank is displayed by the cordão (cord), a rope made of braided cords. The cordão is worn through the belt loops on the uni- form. In contemporary French savate, rank is indicated by a colored band or patch worn on the gloves used for sparring. The latter decades of the twentieth century saw the increasing adop- tion of systems derived from Kanô’s method, not only in Japanese budô, 446 Rank but also by non-Asian systems and contemporary eclectic systems such as capoeira, savate, American Freestyle karate, and Russian sambo. Many martial arts systems remain, however, that have not converted from tradi- tional student-teacher organizational frameworks. Thomas A. Green See also Jûdô; Koryû Bugei, Japanese References Almeida, Bira. Capoeira: A Brazilian Art Form. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books. Carr, Kevin. 1996. “Judo.” Encyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present.