Ngā Kai Para i te Kahikātoa: Māori Filmmaking, Forging a Path By Angela Moewaka Barnes A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Film, Television and Media Studies) The University of Auckland, 2011 Abstract This thesis examines and analyses Māori filmmaking in Aotearoa/New Zealand and, in particular, dramatic feature films with reference to an indigenous global context. This thesis is grounded in Kaupapa Māori theory, a theory that is founded in Māori epistemological and metaphysical traditions. Film is an important part of identity formation and contributes to how we see ourselves as Māori. It shapes others’ perceptions of us locally and globally. There is a struggling but growing movement in the making of Māori dramatic and documentary films, which began in the late 1970s and 1980s. However, very few Māori driven and directed dramatic feature films have been made. Therefore, Māori pioneer filmmakers Barry Barclay (Ngati 1987), Merata Mita (Mauri 1988) and Don Selwyn (Te Tangata Whai Rawa o Wēniti - Māori Merchant of Venice 2002) are significant contributors to our cinematic history. Their films offer us unique and transformative cinematic representations of Māori in the form of dramatic feature films. Little research has been conducted on the conditions of Māori filmmaking, the processes and environments and how these may create barriers or encourage Māori filmmaking aspirations. In addition, only a small body of work exists that examines Māori film and filmmaking that is grounded in Kaupapa Māori theory. This study gives voice to our history and tells part of the story of pioneers in Māori film. Articulating the political and economic nature of filmmaking, the study raises fundamental issues about filmmaking practices and Māori cinematic aspirations. One contribution of the thesis is the development of Kia Manawanui: Kaupapa Māori Film Theoretical Framework - that builds on previous theoretical work. The framework offers new ways to understand and examine films grounded in Māori worldviews and experiences. Key findings highlight how Māori identities and culture are validated through cinematic narrative and visual representations. This was a deliberate act on the part of the pioneer filmmakers who recognised the i transformative potential of cinema; offering a rare opportunity to see Māori reflected on screen in this manner. ii Mihi Don Selwyn, Barry Barclay and Merata Mita; you will never be forgotten. E ngā kai whakairo i ngā taonga kiriata, hei tohu whāngai, hei tohu tuku wero, hei tohu ako, hei tohu pupuri i tō tātou reo pūmau. Kia kore ai tātou e ngaro iho pēnei i te hūia. Ko wai e taea te karo i te toki o Aituā. Te toki a te mate. Noho wairua mai ra koutou i roto i tō mātou whakamaumaharatanga ki a koutou i ngā wā katoa. iii Acknowledgements Thank you to my family and friends. I was fortunate to be able to discuss my research with my sister, Helen Moewaka Barnes, who has done much thinking and writing about conceptualisations of Māori knowledge and theory. These discussions, including her considered feedback and insights, greatly contributed to my work. I would like to thank my Whariki colleagues, in particular Tim McCreanor for his support and valuable feedback on my work, and support staff Jan Sheeran and Lisa Morice. My appreciation extends to Anne Sweeney for her careful proofreading and editorial comments, and Lily George for formatting my thesis and providing additional proofreading. My early supervisors, Duncan Petrie and Jo Smith made important contributions during the early stages of this thesis; in particular to the conceptualisation and scope of the research. Later, Tracey McIntosh, provided continuity of supervision and clarity of thought, skilled in her ability to return to the bigger picture. Sarina Pearson had the difficult task of providing supervision towards the final stages of the research. She was attentive to detail and provided in-depth feedback on my thesis. Each of my four supervisors contributed in a variety of ways and I thank them for this. Kaumātua Naida Glavish was generous with her time, sharing her experiences and knowledge. This was invaluable and shaped my understandings, allowing me a glimpse of the breadth and depth of our knowledge. Through our kōrero the name for my theoretical framework and title for this thesis emerged. Finally I would like to thank everyone who agreed to talk with me and gave generously of their time, knowledge and experiences, including the families of Don Selwyn and Barry Barclay. Your contributions were invaluable. Ka nui te mihi ki ā koutou. iv Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................... i Mihi ........................................................................................................................ iii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. iv Glossary ............................................................................................................... viii Acronyms .............................................................................................................. xii Preface ................................................................................................................. xiii Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 The Struggle to Name our Theory ....................................................................... 1 The Filmmakers ................................................................................................... 4 Methodology ........................................................................................................ 5 Theoretical Underpinnings .............................................................................. 6 Selection of Participants .................................................................................. 6 Interviews: ....................................................................................................... 7 Funding Organisations ..................................................................................... 8 Case Studies ..................................................................................................... 8 Analysis ........................................................................................................... 9 Textual Analysis of Films .............................................................................. 10 Chapter Breakdown ........................................................................................... 10 Chapter One: Colonisation, Racism and Representation ...................................... 12 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 12 Colonisation and Notions of Race ..................................................................... 13 Hegemony and Power ........................................................................................ 18 Regimes of Representation and Truth ............................................................... 22 Identity ............................................................................................................... 32 Counter Currents and Strategies ........................................................................ 35 Acts of Cinematic Resistance and Challenge .................................................... 40 Third and Fourth Cinema ................................................................................... 41 Fourth Cinema ................................................................................................... 45 Summary ............................................................................................................ 48 Chapter Two: Concise History of Aotearoa ......................................................... 50 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 50 Early Contact ..................................................................................................... 50 The 19th Century Treaties and Legislation ......................................................... 52 Expressions of Tino Rangatiratanga .................................................................. 55 Early to Mid-20th Century .................................................................................. 58 The 1960s and 1970s ......................................................................................... 63 The 1980s ........................................................................................................... 68 The 1990s Onwards ........................................................................................... 74 International Strategies ...................................................................................... 78 Summary ............................................................................................................ 82 Chapter Three: A Historical Overview of Māori Filmmaking ............................. 84 v Introduction ........................................................................................................ 84 Early Photographic and Cinematic Representations of Māori ........................... 84 Māori Filmmaking in the 1970s and 1980s ......................................................